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"  Let  the  people  know  the  truth,  and  the  country  is  safe." — Lincoln 

WE  AND 
OUR  GOVERNMENT 

By 

JEREMIAH  WHIPPLE  JENKS 

Research  Professor  of  Government  and  Public  Administration 

New  York  University 

and 

RXn^US  DANIEL  SMITH 
Associate  Professor  of  Public  Economy,  New  York  University 

With  fourteen  full  page  drawings  by  Hanson  Booth,  and  over 
five  hundred  halftone  and  line  illustrations 


CKe  AMERICAN 
VIEWPOINT 
SOCIETY 


DONALD   F.    STEWART 

Editor 


The  text  of  this  book  has  been  read  and  approved  by  an  Editorial  Advisory  Board 

composed  of  many  of  the  leading  educators  of  the  whole  country.     The 

book  is  published  in  cooperation  with  Federal 

Educational  Activities 


New  York 
The  American  Viewpoint  Society 

a  department  of 

Boni  CBi  Liveright,   Inc. 

1922 


\  /      'L 

5 


v6^ 


^^ 


■WE  AND  OUR  GOVERNMENT 

Copyright,  1922,  by 

Boni  ca.  Liveright,  Inc. 

AH  rights  protected  including  the  Scandinavian 


FORT   ORANGE    PRESS 
THE  BRANDOW    PRINTING   COMPANY 
ALBANY.    NrW    YORK 


AUTHORS'    FOREW^ORD 

t  HE  Government  of  the  United  States  must  be  carried  on  by 
intelligent  American  citizens  who  have  a  grasp  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  underlying  its  organization  and  activities. 
The  purpose  of  this  first  volume  of  The  American  Viewpoint 
Series,  "  We  and  Our  Government,"  is  to  state  and  discuss 
these  principles  simply  and  concisely.  The  main  emphasis  throughout 
the  book  is  placed  on  ideas  vital  to  an  understanding  of  the  actual  work- 
ings of  our  Government  rather  than  on  a  purely  encyclopedic  statement 
of  detailed  activities  which  change  so  rapidly  from  day  to  day. 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  the  Editor  of  the  Series,  who,  with 
infinite  patience  and  skill,  has  re-expressed  in  pictures  and  captions  the 
text  of  the  book.  These  illustrations  (there  are  over  500),  with  their 
captions,  make  in  themselves  a  simplified  and  concise  text  emphasizing 
the  outstanding  points  in  each  chapter  much  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
moving  picture  develops  its  theme.  In  fact  the  reader  has  really  three 
connected  narratives:    First,  pictures;  second,  captions,  and  third,  text. 

Educators  who  have  examined  the  first  volume  have  expressed  the 
opinion  that  this  original  plan  of  illustration  makes  it  for  all  an  excep- 
tionally easy,  interesting,  and  helpful  book  to  read. 

The  authors  will  indeed  be  satisfied  if  "  We  and  Our  Government " 
meets  the  need  so  often  expressed  to  them  by  teachers  and  students  for 
a  book  which  would  explain  clearly  and  simply  how  our  Government 
works  and  the  principles  upon  which  it  is  built.  If  it  arouses  in  its 
readers  a  desire  to  take  a  greater  interest  in  our  country  and  its  prob- 
lems; to  know  more  of  its  resources,  its  economics  and  its  people,  then 
those  who  are  responsible  for  it  will  be  richly  rewarded. 

The  authors  are  greatly  indebted  to  the  members  of  the  Editorial 
Advisory  Board  of  the  American  Viewpoint  Society  for  their  valuable 
cooperation  in  the  preparation  of  the  text  of  this  book,  also,  to  Ray- 
mond F.  Crist  of  the  Bureau  of  Naturalization,  Department  of  Labor, 
Washington,  for  his  editorial  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the  text 
of    Chapter    V — American    Citizenship. 

J.  W.  J. 
R.  D.  S. 

New  York,  November,  1922 


THE  EDITORIAL  ADVISORY  BOARD  OF  THE  AMERICAN  VIEWPOINT 

SOCIETY 


DONALD   F.    STEWART 

President    and   Editor 

HORACE    B.    LIVERIGHT 

Chairman    of   Executive    Board 


EDITORIAL   ADVISORY 
BOARD 
FANNIE  FERN  ANDREWS 
Secretary,    The   American    School 
Citizenship    League 
ANNIE  WEBB   BLANTON 

State    Superintendent    of    Public 
Instruction,    Texas 

EDWIN    C.    BROOME 

Superintendent    of    Schools, 
Philadelphia 

ARTHUR  H.  CHAMBERLAIN 
Executive     Secretary,     California 
Council   of  Education 

J.   A.   C.   CHANDLER 

President,    College    of    William 
and    Mary 

FRANK    CODY 

Superintendent   of    Schools, 
Detroit 

L.    D.    COFFMAN 

President,  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota 

WILLIAM  M.   DAVIDSON 
Superintendent   of    Schools, 
Pittsburgh 

ARTHUR  D.   DEAN 

Professor    of    Vocational    Educa- 
tion,  Teachers   College,   Columbia 

University 

FRANK   L.   DYKEMA 

Executive    Secretary  _  of    the 
Americanization    Society, 
Grand    Rapids 

r.   E,  FINEGAN 
State    Superintendent    of    Public 
Instruction,    Harrisburg 


EUGENE  LYMAN  FISK,  M.  D. 
Vice  President  and  Medical  Di- 
rector,   Life   Extension   Institute 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART 
Professor  of  Government  in  Har- 
vard University 

GRACE  RAYMOND  HEBARD 

Professor  of  Economics  and  So- 
ciology,   University   of   Wyoming 

H.  V.  HOLLOWAY 

Commissioner  of  Education,  State 
of    Delaware 

JEREMIAH    W.    JENKS 

Research    Professor    of    Govern- 
ment  and    Public   Administration, 
New  York  University 

JOSEPH    FRENCH    JOHNSON 
President,     Alexander    Hamilton 
Institute;     Dean    and    Professor 
of  Political  Economy,  New  York 
University 

R.   G.  JONES 

Superintendent    of    Schools, 
Cleveland,   Ohio 

Hon.  BEN  B.  LINDSEY 

Judge  of   the  Juvenile   Court, 
Denver 

ORTON   LOWE 

Director   of    English,    Department 
of    Public    Instruction, 
Pennsylvania 

JOHN  J.   MAHONEY 

Professor  of  Education,  Boston 
University,  and  Director  of 
Extension  Courses  for  Boston 
University,  and  the  Harvard 
Graduate    School    of    Education. 

WILLIAM    McANDREW 

Associate  Superintendent,  New 
York  Public  Schools 

I,  B.   MORGAN 

Director    of    Continuation, 
Schools  and  Vocation  Bureau, 
Kansas   City,   Kansas 


PETER    A.    MORTENSON 

Superintendent    of    Schools, 
Chicago 

ANGELO   PATRI 

Principal  of  Public  School  No. 
45,   New   York  City 

FRANCES  PERKINS 
Secretary,  Council  of 
Immigrant  Education,  New  York 

JOSEPHINE  CORLISS  PRESTON 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion,   State  of   Washington 

GEORGE  F.  QUIMBY 

Industrial  Service  Secretary,  As- 
sociated Industries  of  Massachu- 
setts 

PHILIP   SHORE 

Chairman    Board   of   Education, 
Tampa,   Fla. 

RUFUS  DANIEL  SMITH 

Associate     Professor    of     Public 
Economy,   New   York  University 

WILLIAM  C.   SMITH 

Supervisor  of  Immigrant  Educa- 
tion, The  University  of  the  State 
of  New   York 

CORA  WILSON   STEWART 
Chairman,     National     Illiteracy 
Committee,   Frankfort,   Ky. 

ASHLEY   H.   THORNDIKE 
Professor    of    English,    Columbia 
University 

JAMES  E.  WEST 

Chief  Scout  Executive, 
Boy  Scouts  of  America 

ARTHUR  H.  WILDE 

Dean,   School   of   Education. 
Boston  University 

WILL   C.   WOOD 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion,  California 


SUBJECTS    CHOSEN    FOR    THE    SERIES    OF    CITIZENSHIP    BOOKS    BY    THE 

EDITORIAL  ADVISORY  BOARD 


(1)  POLITICAL:— 3   Books 

a  *We  and  Our  Government 

b  *History  of  the  United  States 

c  *We  and  Our  Neighbors 

(2)  NATURAL  RESOURCES:— 2   Books 
a     Our  Treasures  of  Land  and  Sea 

b     The  Mighty  Commerce  of  the  Nation 


(3)  POPULATION:— 1  Book 

♦Who  and  What  Are  We? 

(4)  BUSINESS  RELATIONS:— 1  Book 
*We   and   Our  Work 

(5)  SOCIAL   RELATIONS:— 3   Books 
a  *Public  and  Personal  Health 

b  *The  American — Author,  Artist.  Builder 
c  *To  Learn — Where  and  How 


NOTE. — The  titles  of  the  books  are  not  given — subject    matter  only. 
authors  have  been  secured. 


Asterisk   (*)    indicates  subjects  for  which 


A   pXRTIAL   list   of   AMERICAN  VIEWPOINT  AUTHORS 


JEREMIAH  WHIPPLE  JENKS,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Re- 
search Professor  of  Government  and  Public  Admin- 
istration, New  York  University;  Chairman,  Board  of 
Directors,  Alexander  Hamilton  Institute. 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Professor 
of  Government  in  Harvard  University. 

JOSEPH  FRENCH  JOHNSON,  D.C.S.,  LL.  D.,  Dean 
and  Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Finance,  New 
York  University  and  President,  Alexander  Hamilton 
Institute. 

ASHLEY  H.  THORNDIKE,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D..  Professor  of 
English,  Columbia  University. 


EUGENE  LYMAN  FISK,  M.  D.,  Vice-President  and 
Medical  Director,  Life  Extension  Institute,  New  York. 

HENRY  PRATT  FAIRCHILD.  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of 
Social  Economy,  New  York  University. 

RUFUS  DANIEL  SMITH,  M.  A.,  Associate  Professor 
of   Public    Economy,   New   York   University. 

ANGELO  PATRI,  Principal  Public  School  45,  The  Bronx. 

JOHN  J.  MAHONEY,  Professor  of  Education,  Boston 
University,  and  Director  of  Extension  Courses  for 
Boston  University  and  the  Harvard  Graduata  School 
of   Education. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Declaration  of  Independence 6 

Chapter     L— We,  The  People 9 

Chapter    2. — The  Mechanics  of  Government 25 

Chapter    3. — Law  and  Government 35 

Chapter    4. — The  Constitution  of  the  United  States 47 

Chapter     5. — American  Citizenship   77 

Chapter    6. — Party  Government   91 

Chapter    7. — Our  Vote  in  Government 105 

Chapter    8. — Our  Representatives  in  Government 121 

Chapter    9. — Taxes  and   Government 133 

Chapter  10. — National  Government 149 

Chapter  11. — State  Government 171 

Chapter  12. — Local  Government    185 

Chapter  13.— The  American  City 193 

Chapter  14. — America — A  World  Nation 209 

Questions  and  Problems  Based  on  Text 216 

Index  222 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  photographs  for  this  book  were  secured  from  (1)  the  Departments  and  Bureaus 
of  the  Federal  Government,  (2)  the  Library  of  Congress,  (3)  New  York  Public  Library, 
(4)  Underwood  and  Underwood,  and  Ewing  Galloway,  New  York,  (5)  Boards  and 
Departments,  New  York  City  and  from  other  sources.  The  publishers  are  indebted  to 
David    E.    Roberts,    Division    of    Prints,    Library  of   Congress,   for  his  valued  cooperation. 


FEDERAL  COOPERATION 

The  American  Viewpoint  Society  is  authorized  by  the  Secretary  of  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Labor  to  state  that  the  work  it  is  undertaking  in  the  production  of  books  and  educational 
films  for  the  citizenship  classes  throughout  the  United  States  is  done  in  cooperation  with 
and  in  furtherance  of  the  policies  and  plans  of  the  Department  in  its  citizenship  training 
work. 


In    congress.    July  4.  177^. 


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REDUCED   FACSIMILE   OF   THE   DECLARATION    OF   INDEPENDENCE 

United  States  of  America,  Department  of  State.     To  all  to  whom  these  Presents  shall  come,  Greeting^: 

I  certify  that  the  foregoing  is  a  fac-simile  of  the  original  Declaration  of  Independence  as  it  was 
engrossed,  laid  on  the  Speaker's  table,  and  signed  in  the  Continental  Congress  in  1776,  and  deposited  with 
the  papers  of  the  Continental  Congress  in  the  Department  of  State.  .       -u    1 

In  testimony  whereof,  I,  John  Hay,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  have  hereunto  subscribed 
my  name  and  caused  the  seal  of  the  Department  of  State  to  be  affixed.  ,,,-,,  1  r 

Done  at  the  City  of  Washington  this  8th  day  of  November,  A.  D.,  1902,  and  of  the  Independence  of 
the  United  States  of  America  the  one  hundred  and  twenty-seventh,  ,„»•,»,    xt  >  -.r 

(signed)    JOHN    HAY 


In  congress,  July  4,  fy^ell'Ol^lWli: 

®l{^  unantmowsi  ^^tlaralton  Df%tiiirtee«mtit.b  States  oi  ^mmtn 

WHEN,  in  the  Course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political 
bands  which  have  connected  them  with  another,  and  to  assume  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate 
and  equal  station  to  which  the  Laws  of  Nature  and  of  Nature's  God  entitles  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the 
opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes  which   impel   them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are  created  equal,  that  they  are  endowed  by  their 
Creator  with  certain  unalienable  Rights,  that  among  these  are  Life,  Liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  Happiness. 
That  to  secure  these  rights.  Governments  are  instituted  among  Men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the 
consent  of  the  governed.  That  whenever  any  Form  of  Government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it 
is  the  Right  of  the  People  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  new  Government,  laying  its  foundation 
on  such  principles  and  organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their 
Safety  and  Happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that  Governments  long  established  should  not  be 
changed  for  light  and  transient  causes;  and  accordingly  all  experience  hath  shewn;  that  mankind  are  more 
disposed  to  suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they 
are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same  Object 
evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  Despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off 
such  Government,  and  to  provide  new  Guards  for  their  future  security.  Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance 
of  these  Colonies;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  Systems  of 
Government.  The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpa- 
tions, all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  Tyranny  over  these  States.  To  prove 
this,  let  Facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  Assent  to  Laws,  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to  pass  Laws  of  immediate  and  pressing  importance,  unless  suspended 
in  their  operation  till  his  Assent  should  be  obtained;  and  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to 
attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  Laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large  districts  of  people,  unless  those 
people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  Representation  in  the  Legislature,  a  right  inestimable  to  them  and 
formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable,  and  distant  from  the  deposi- 
tory of  their  public  Records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  to  compliance  with   his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  Representative  Houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing  with  manly  firmness  his  invasions 
on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused  for  a  long  time,  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be  elected;  whereby  the 
Legislative  powers,  incapable  of  Annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  People  at  large  for  their  exercise;  the 
State  remaining  in  the  meantime  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States;  for  that  purpose  obstructing  the  Laws  for 
Naturalization  of  Foreigners;  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migrations  hither,  and  raising  the 
conditions  of  new  Appropriations  of  Lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  Administration  of  Justice,  by  refusing  his  Assent  to  Laws  for  establishing 
Judiciary  Powers. 

He  has  made  Judges  dependent  on  his  Will  alone,  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and 
payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  New  Offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of  Officers  to  harass  our  people, 
and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace.  Standing  Armies  without  the  Consent  of  our  Legislature. 

He  has  affected  to   render  the   Military   independent  of  and   superior  to   the   Civil   power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowl- 
edged by  our  laws;  giving  his  Assent  to  their  Acts  of  pretended  Legislation: 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us: 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  Trial,  from  punishment  for  any  Murders  which  they  should  commit 
on  the  Inhabitants  of  these  States: 

For  cutting  off  our  Trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world: 

For  imposing  Taxes  on  us  without  bur  Consent: 

For  depriving  us  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  Trial  by  jury: 

For  transporting  us  beyond  Seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offenses: 

For  abolishing  the  free  System  of  English  Laws  in  a  neighboring  Province,  establishing  therein  an 
Arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  Boundaries  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument 
for  introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into  these  Colonies: 

For  taking  away  our  Charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  Laws,  and  altering  fundamentally  the  Forms 
of  our  Governments: 

For  suspending  our  own  Legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested  with  power  to  legislate  for 
us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  Government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  Protection  and  waging  War  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  Coasts,  burnt  our  towns,  and  destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  Armies  of  foreign  Mercenaries  to  complete  the  works  of  death, 
desolation  and  tyranny,  already  begun  with  circumstances  of  Cruelty  &  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the 
most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  Head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-Citizens  taken  captive  on  the  high  Seas  to  bear  Arms  against  their 
Country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  Brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  Hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst  us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of 
our  frontiers,  the  merciless  Indian  Savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warefare,  is  an  undistinguished  destruction 
of  all  ages,  sexes  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  Oppressions  We  have  Petitioned  for  Redress  in  the  most  humble  terms:  Our 
repeated  Petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A  Prince,  whose  character  is  thus  marked 
by  every  act  which  may  define  a  Tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attentions  to  our  British  brethren.  We  have  warned  them  from  time 
to  time  of  attempts  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded 
them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice 
and  magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured  them  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred  to  disavow  these  usurpa- 
tions, which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections  and  correspondence.  They  too  have  been  deaf 
to  the  voice  of  justice  and  of  consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity,  which  denounces 
our  Separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind,  Enemies  in  War,  in  Peace  Friends. 

Wji  THEREFORE,  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  General  Congress, 
Assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  Name, 
and  by  authority  of  the  good  People  of  these  Colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare.  That  these  United 
Colonies  are,  and  of  Right  ought  to  be  free  and  independent  st.-vtes;  that  they  are  Absolved  from  all 
Allegiance  to  the  British  Crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  State  of  Great 
Britain  is  and  ought  to  be  totally  dissolved;  and  that  as  free  and  independent  States,  they  have  full 
Power  to  levy  War,  conclude  Peace,  contract  Alliances,  establish  Commerce,  and  to  do  all  other  Acts  and 
Things  which  independent  States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the  support  of  this  Declaration,  with  a  firm 
reliance  on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  Lives,  our  Fortunes, 
and  our  sacred  Honor. 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

When  we  think  of  the  United  States,  we  thinl<  of  opportunity,  speed,  individuality, 
virion,  earneetness  of  purpose  and  re9ourcefutnes8 


CHAPTER  I 


We,  The  People 

Character  and  National  Resources — the  Ideal  Combination  Which 
Makes  a  Great  and  Outstanding  Nation 


WE  WORKED  TOGETHER 
AND  HELPED  ONE  AN- 
OTHER." According  to  Rear- 
Admiral  Robert  E.  Peary,  an  American, 
this  was  the  plan  that  enabled  him  to 
reach  the  North  Pole  in  1909,  after  many 
other  heroic  explorers  had  failed.  It  is 
the  principle  to  follow  in  all  the  work 
of  life,  great  and  small. 

Have  you  ever 
stopped  to  think 
how  necessary  it  is 
in  modern  life  that 
all  of  us  work  to- 
gether to  help  one 
another?  Let  us  for 
a  few  minutes  think 
of  the  reason  for 
some  of  the  things 
that  in  our  daily  life 
we  take  for  granted. 
Early  each  morning 
we  open  the  back 
door,  or  the  dumb- 
waiter door  if  we 
live  in  a  big  apart- 
ment house  in  a 
great  city,  and  take 
in  the  bottle  of  milk 
that  is  to  be  used 
for  our  breakfast. 
It  is  usually  waiting 
for  us.  But  suppose  that  for  some  rea- 
son or  other,  perhaps  a  big  snow-storm 
which  ties  up  the  railroads,  our  morning 
bottle  of  milk  is  not  on  time.  What 
troubles  arise!  The  oatmeal  without 
milk  does  not  taste  nearly  so  good !  The 
baby  cannot  understand.  Then  we  begin 
to  wonder.  "  What  is  the  matter?  "  we 
ask.  And  with  the  question  comes  the 
realization  of  how  very  dependent  we 
and  our  family  are  upon  others  for  our 
every-day  comforts  and  happiness. 


Team  Work 


IWTAN  cannot  live  and 
^^-^  maintain  the  kind 
of  a  society  in  which  we 
now  live  without  cooper- 
ation . . .  Our  American 
Democracy  is  team  work 
on  a  great  scale.  It  is 
a  great  society  composed 
of  individual  citizens, 
organized  to  be  a  political 
'WE  ...  A  Democracy 
is  a  country  owned  and 
managed  by  all  its  adult 
citizens  through  their 
government. 


Ordinarily,  getting  a  bottle  of  milk 
seems  a  simple  matter.  Every  morning 
we  look  for  it  and  find  it  in  the  same 
spot  on  the  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
days  of  the  year.  It  never  enters  our 
heads  that  a  complex  business  organiza- 
tion is  responsible  for  such  a  common- 
place occurrence;  that  many  people 
working  together  furnish  us  with  milk, 
and  that  while  some 
of  us  have  our  work 
to  do  after  a  seven 
o'clock  breakfast, 
others  of  us  have 
been  up  and  at  work 
much  earlier. 


A  Long  Journey 

Let  us  trace  the 
bottle  of  milk  back 
along  its  journey. 
Every  morning  of 
the  year  some  milk- 
man must  get  up  at 
two  or  three  o'clock 
in  order  that  fresh 
milk  may  be  de- 
livered for  the  ce- 
real and  the  baby. 
The  job  of  the  milk- 
man is  a  hard,  tire- 
some task.  Part  of  the  price  we  pay 
for  each  quart  of  milk  goes  toward  his 
weekly  wages. 

In  the  larger  cities  each  driver  secures 
his  milk  from  some  central  station 
where  it  has  been  pasteurized  and  iced 
carefully  in  order  that  it  may  be  pure 
and  wholesome  when  it  reaches  our 
homes.  The  central  plant  has  in  turn 
secured  its  supply  of  milk  from  the 
railroad  which  runs  daily  milk  trains 
back  along  its  lines  for  literally  hun- 


10 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


Many  people  work  together  so  that  we  will  get  our 
bottle  of  milk  every  morning.  THE  GOVERNMENT 
EMPLOYS  MANY  TO  TEST  THE  COWS  to  make  sure 
that  they  give  pure  milk.  There  are  those  who  milk 
the  cows  and  still  others  who  deliver  the  milk  to  us. 


Great  numbers  of  people  work  in  THE  LARGE  STEEL 
PLANTS  where  steel  rails  are  made  for  the  railroads 
that   bring  the   milk  from   the  country   to  the   city. 


fc*^)!(««««w-^    » 


THOUSANDS  MORE  BUILD  THE  AUTOMOBILES 
that  the  farmers  use  to  haul  the  milk  to  the  railroad 
stations.  3,000,000  American  farmers  own  automobiles. 
The  automobile  industry  employs  2,740,000  people. 


dreds  of  miles  from  the  largest 
cities.  To  each  rural  station 
milk  is  brought  from  the  sur- 
rounding districts  by  individual 
farmers.  Unless  the  farmers 
meet  the  trains,  and  the  trains 
are  on  time,  we  fail  to  get  our 
supply  promptly.  Each  indi- 
vidual farmer  and  his  hired  man 
must  milk  the  cows  both  morn- 
ing and  night  without  a  break  in 
the  routine.  Out  of  the  price 
we  pay  for  our  milk  must  go  a 
percentage  to  each  of  the  work- 
ers who  have  handled  it. 

Still  other  individuals  are  in- 
terested in  our  morning  bottle 
of  milk.  In  order  that  we  may 
be  safe  from  infected  milk,  some 
official  of  the  government  has 
tested  the  cows  for  tuberculosis. 
The  government  has  also  re- 
quired that  certain  standards  of 
cleanliness  be  met,  that  the  milk 
be  kept  free  from  adulteration, 
and  that  a  definite  grade  of  rich- 
ness of  cream  and  of  purity  be 
maintained.  Clean  milk,  pure 
milk,  rich  milk,  milk  on  time, 
means  that  we  and  our  family 
keep  in  good  health.  There  are 
many  individuals  who  are  re- 
sponsible for  these  conditions. 

The  Whole  World  Helps 

This  is  not  all.  Many  other 
agencies,  indirectly,  are  called 
upon.  The  engineer  and  the  fire- 
man of  the  train  which  brings  in 
the  milk  must  be  experienced 
men.  The  cars  necessary  to 
transport  such  a  product  as  milk 
have  to  be  especially  manufac- 
tured in  a  great  car-making  plant. 
The  rails  on  which  the  milk  trains 
run  are  produced  in  a  great 
steel  plant,  which  in  turn  goes, 
back  to  the  mining  centers  of 
coal  and  iron.  The  highways  toi 
railroad  stations  were  built  andl 


WE,      THE      PEOPLE 


11 


are  kept  in  repair  by  government 
officials.  The  automobiles  which 
the  farmers  use  to  transport 
their  milk  from  the  farms  to  the 
stations  were  built  by  thousands 
of  workers  laboring  in  the  fac- 
tories at  Detroit  or  Cleveland. 
Even  the  farmer's  tin  pail  and 
can  and  the  lowly  milk  bottle 
went  through  many  processes  in 
a  great  tin  or  glass  manufactur- 
ing plant.  In  one  way  or  an- 
other the  whole  world  has  been 
drawn  into  the  process  of  deliv- 
ering our  early  morning  bottle 
of  milk. 

A  Great  Newspaper 

Another  interesting  example 
of  cooperation  is  the  newspaper. 
It  is  the  twin,  at  least  in  time 
and  importance,  to  the  bottle  of 
milk.  The  newspaper  also  meets 
us  at  the  breakfast  table.  It  is 
our  daily  traveling  companion. 
Before  we  reach  the  office  or 
workshop  we  know  what  has 
happened  throughout  the  world 
during  the  last  twenty-four 
hours.  We  have  read  perhaps 
about  a  great  fire,  about  the 
happenings  at  some  impor- 
tant conference  in  Washington, 
of  the  details  of  yesterday's 
baseball  game,  of  a  severe  earth- 
quake in  Japan,  of  a  famine  in 
Russia  or  China,  of  the  Presi- 
dent's latest  choice  for  the 
United  States  Cabinet,  of  an- 
other missing  link  discovered  in 
the  Himalaya  Mountains;  all 
told  in  short,  snappy  news  items 
that  we  may  read  quickly. 

What  a  marvelous  organiza- 
tion a  newspaper  is,  from  the 
boy  who  delivers  it  in  the  morn- 
ing, right  back  through  the  print- 
ing plant,  composing  room,  to 
the  wireless  and  cable,  and  the 


Many  must  work  together  so  that  we  may  get  our 
newspaper  every  day.  THE  STORY  OF  A  GREAT 
FIRE  must  have  reporters,  editors  and  printers.  Still 
others,  working  together,  must  make  the  huge  rolls  of 


paper  and  must  build  the  large  printing  presses.  It 
took  the  work  of  thousands  of  men  and  women  to  give 
to  the  world  the  story  of  the  Conference  on  Limitation 
of  Armaments,  held  at  Washington.  At  this  Confer- 
ence, on  the  last  day,  February  6,  1922.  PRESIDENT 
HARDING   GAVE   AN   ADDRESS.     The   next  day   it 


was  printed  in  all  the  papers.     The  work  of  a  great 
many  is  needed  to  report  a  BASEBALL  GAME. 


12 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


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In  the  early  days  of  our  country  people  did  not  work 
together  as  we  do  now.  For  example,  the  father  of 
Lincoln  built  this  log  cabin  IN  WHICH  THE  GREAT 
LINCOLN  WAS  BORN,  February  12,  1809.    Today,  we 


do  not  build  our  homes.  WE  HIRE  CARPENTERS, 
PLUMBERS,  PAINTERS  and  other  skilled  workers 
to  build  them  for  us.     In  the  U.  S.  over  3,500,000  are 


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employed  in  the  building  trades.  WE  ALSO  PAY 
THE  RAILROADS  to  bring  the  materials  for  our 
homes  from  distant  parts  of  the  country.  They  haul 
yearly  over  two  billion  tons  of  freight. 


reporters  and  editors  who  gather 
and  edit  the  news. 

All  these  things  illustrate 
the  marvelous  fact  that  we  are 
a  part  of  a  vast,  intricate  organ- 
ization. Modern  life  is  the  com- 
bined results  of  the  efforts  of 
thousands,  even  millions,  of 
people,  each  of  whom  has 
contributed  his  mite  of  effort. 
Society  is  a  finely  spun,  deli- 
cate but  wonderful  organiza- 
tion. To  live  we  must  each 
be  dependent  on  the  other, 
and  yet  few  of  us  are  conscious 
that  we  are  working  to  build  and 
support  this  organization.  Our 
first  concern  is  to  get  our  wages. 
How  much  more  interesting  and 
vital  our  work  becomes  when  we 
realize  its  social  meaning,  that 
it  is  our  contribution  to  the  sup- 
port of  society! 

Thousands  Employed 

Take  anything  which  we  use, 
even  a  silk  necktie,  and  trace  it 
back  to  its  original  source,  and 
it  will  be  found  that  countless 
men  and  women  have  worked  to 
make  it.  We  no  longer  build  our 
own  homes  as  did  the  early  pio- 
neers in  America.  We  have  car- 
penters and  plumbers  and  paint- 
ers and  architects  do  the  work  for 
us.  We  in  turn,  however,  are  doing 
something  for  each  of  them.  We 
may  work  in  a  school  as  teach- 
ers and  educate  their  children. 
We  may  be  locomotive  engineers 
who  carry  materials  from  city  to 
city.  We  may  be  lumbermen  in 
the  Maine  woods  or  the  Canadian 
forests  who  cut  the  trees  which 
furnish  lumber  for  our  home  or 
the  wood  pulp  for  our  newspaper. 

But  in  any  case,  whatever  we 
do  means  working  together. 
Wherever  we  turn  in  modern  life 


WE,      THE      PEOPLE 


13 


we  find  the  need  of  cooperation. 
There  is  cooperation  in  the 
home;  business  is  cooperation 
on  a  larger  scale.  Man  cannot 
live  and  maintain  the  kind  of 
society  in  which  we  now  live 
without  cooperation. 

The  Need  of  Confidence 

Underneath  this  cooperation  is 
mutual  confidence.  Unless  one 
stops  to  think,  one  little  realizes 
the  amount  of  confidence  that 
one  must  place  in  other  people. 
Take  money;  for  example,  a  pa- 
per dollar.  What  is  it  worth? 
As  paper — nothing.  Why  is  it 
worth  a  dollar?  Because  behind 
it  stands  the  good  promise  and 
the  whole  strength  and  honor  of 
the  government.  We  have  con- 
fidence that  the  American  Gov- 
ernment to  its  fullest  extent  is 
ready  to  back  that  paper  dollar. 

Another  example:  You  buy 
some  groceries  and  give  a 
check  in  payment.  The  store- 
keeper accepts  your  check,  en- 
dorses it,  and  sends  it  to  a  bank. 
The  bank  places  it  to  the  credit 
of  your  store.  From  there  it 
passes  on  through  a  central 
bank  and  clearing  house  until  it 
finally  comes  back  to  your  own 
bank  where  it  is  charged  against 
your  account.  You  use  the  whole 
great  banking  system  of  the 
United  States  at  every  step ;  you 
place  confidence  in  many  and  the 
many  place  confidence  in  you. 
Mutual  confidence  —  confidence 
in  the  integrity,  in  the  profi- 
ciency, in  the  honesty,  in  the 
good  intentions  of  others — is  the 
keystone  around  which  modern 
society  is  built. 

You  buy  an  automobile  of  a 
well-recognized  make.  You  do 
not  test  every  part  of  that  ma- 
chine yourself.     You  are  confi- 


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In  order  to  work  together  we  must  have  faith  in 
each  other.  When  YOUR  GROCER  ACCEPTS 
YOUR  CHECK  in  payment  for  the  tea,  sugar  and 
flour  that  you  buy,  he  shows  confidence  in  you.     He 


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believes  that  your  check  is  good,  endorses  it,  and 
sends  it  to  his  bank,  where  it  is  placed  to  his  credit. 
From  there  it  passes  to  a  Central  Bank  and  Clearing 
House  until  IT  FINALLY  COIVIES  BACK  TO  YOUR 
BANK,    and    is    charged    against   your    account.        In 


THE  UNITED  STATES  TREASURY  a  record  is 
kept  of  all  money — gold,  silver,  and  bills — ^that  is 
Issued  by  the  National  Government. 


14 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Because  we  have  faith  in  each  other  this  is  a  safe 
country  to  live  in.  There  are  people,  however,  who 
seek  to  destroy  confidence  by  breaking  the  laws.  He 
who  breaks  a  law  commits  a  crime  and  MUST  PAY 
A  PENALTY   FOR    HIS  CRIME.     Because  there   are 


such  people  we  need  the  police.  The  police  have 
many  other  duties.  One  of  the  important  duties  of 
the  police  is  to   REGULATE  STREET  TRAFFIC. 


dent  that  a  machine  of  that  make 
has  been  thoroughly  tested  be- 
fore it  comes  into  your  hands. 
Confidence  is  the  basis  of  modern 
life.  The  man  or  woman  who 
attempts  to  destroy  this  confi- 
dence by  thoughtless,  selfish  or 
criminal  acts,  is  an  enemy  of  the 
community. 

Basis  of  Government 

Cooperation  and  confidence,  so 
necessary  in  modern  life,  also 
form  the  basis  of  Government. 
Government  is  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  looking  after  common 
interests,  interests  that  can  be 
best  handled  by  the  cooperation 
of  us  all.  A  state  is  similar  to 
any  other  organization  created 
for  a  definite  purpose.  It  is  all 
of  us  organized  into  a  political 
society  for  the  purpose  of  serv- 
ing the  common  good,  and  with- 
out this  organization  we  could 
not  receive  this  service.  All  of 
us,  each  active  as  a  separate  in- 
dividual, would  be  too  weak;  all 
acting  together  are  mighty. 

The  purpose  and  need  of  gov- 
ernment is  illustrated  many 
times  a  day.  "  That's  the  best 
cop  in  town,"  said  George,  as  the 
policeman  at  the  corner  of 
Fourth  Avenue  and  Twentieth 
Street,  New  York,  with  uplifted 
hand  stopped  the  traffic.  He 
motioned  a  young  woman  with  a 
little  girl  to  cross  the  street, 
took  gently  the  hand  of  the  child 
and  helped  her  across,  started  the 
traffic  promptly  and  in  a  minute 
had  everything  running  safely 
again.  "How  is  he  better  than 
the  policeman  at  the  corner  of 
Lafayette  and  Canal  Streets?  "  I 
asked.  "He  handles  the  traffic 
just  as  well,  and  besides  he's 
kind  to  the  women  and  especi- 


WE,     THE     PEOPLE 


15 


ally   looks  after  children,"  said 
George,  who  has  boys  of  his  own. 

Backed  by  the  State 

We  seldom  think  of  a  police- 
man as  the  special  protector  of 
women  and  children.  Usually 
we  think  of  him  as  the  guardian 
of  life  and  property  against 
criminals.  But  he  is  needed  to 
keep  order  among  the  well-mean- 
ing citizens  as  well  as  to  protect 
us  from  the  acts  of  criminals,  or 
to  force  criminals  to  answer  for 
their  acts.  Nine  out  of  ten 
of  the  automobile  drivers  mean 
well  and  are  reasonably  careful. 
They  do  not  wish  to  hurt  anyone. 
They  do  not  wish  to  be  need- 
lessly selfish  in  disobeying  traf- 
fic rules,  but  no  two  automobile 
drivers  think  exactly  alike.  No 
two  of  them  see  the  traffic 
from  exactly  the  same  point  of 
view.  Therefore,  someone  with 
authority  is  necessary  to  direct 
the  traffic.  With  an  able  officer 
in  charge  who  has  the  power 
of  the  whole  State  back  of  him, 
not  only  are  our  streets  made 
safe,  but  the  traffic  moves  along 
more  rapidly  and  easily. 

Need  of  Umpires  and  Rules 

When  we  think  of  a  traffic  po- 
liceman as  a  director  who 
smooths  our  way,  we  have  hit 
upon  a  new  conception  of  gov- 
ernment. What  is  true  of 
street  traffic  is  equally  true  of 
many  things  in  our  daily  life. 
The  great  majority  of  us  have 
good  intentions.  We  are  willing 
to  do  our  share  for  the  good  of 
all,  but  since  we  are  individuals, 
with  separate  minds,  each  think- 
ing in  his  own  way,  we  form  dif- 
ferent plans  and  do  things  in  dif- 
ferent ways.  Unless  there  is 
some  impartial  umpire  with  real 


The   police   are   hired   by  the   people   organized    as 
government.    Some  cities  also  have  WOMEN  POLICE 


a  part  of  whose  work  is  to  look  after  the  children. 
States  employ  CONSTABULARY  OR  STATE  PO- 
LICE, to  keep  order  in  the  country  and  small  towns, 
and   to   hold   in  check  those   who   by  their   acts   are 


enemies  of  the  people.  Police  are  needed  just  as 
directors  are  needed  to  make  moving  pictures.  WITH- 
OUT A  DIRECTOR  no  moving  picture  could  be  made. 


16 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Some  who  are  enemies  of  the  people  are  not  crimi- 
nal at  heart  but  are  careless  or  thoughtless.  The  man 
who  tosses  away  a  lighted  cigarette  does  not  mean 
to  start  a  fire,  yet  MANY  FIRES  ARE  CAUSED  THIS 
WAY.  It  is  because  so  many  are  careless  that  our 
yearly    loss    through    fire    is    over   $250,000,000.      The 


thoughtless  person  who  spits  on  the  sidewalk  would 
not  do  so  if  he  gave  a  thought  to  the  thousands  of 
people  who  are  SICK  WITH  TUBERCULOSIS.  This 
disease  is  often  spread  by  spitting.     For  people  who 


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are  thoughtless,  as  well  as  for  those  who  are  criminal, 
we  must  have  LAWS,  POLICE  AND  THE  COURTS. 


authority  who  enforces  the  rules 
that  we  have  mutually  agreed 
upon,  we  should  live  and  work 
continually  at  cross  purposes. 
How  could  the  actors,  the  elec- 
tricians and  camera  men  work  in 
harmony  to  produce  a  moving 
picture  if  they  did  not  follow 
the  instructions  of  the  director? 
Without  him  there  would  be 
confusion.  In  like  manner, 
with  so  many  people  doing 
so  many  things  in  so  many 
different  ways,  without  laws 
and  their  rigid  enforcement, 
there  would  be  endless  con- 
fusion in  any  city  or  any 
nation.  This  confusion  would 
become  very  serious  unless  there 
were  uniform  rules  or  laws  that 
apply  to  all  the  people  so  that 
each  one  may  know  in  advance 
just  what  he  must  not  and  must 
do,  so  far  as  his  acts  affect  the 
comfort  of  his  neighbors. 

Bad  Neighbors,  Poor  Citizens 

In  every  community  there  are 
people  who  object  to  rules. 
Some  of  these  are  merely 
thoughtless  or  careless,  some  ig- 
norant, some  selfish,  and  some 
actually  criminal.  The  thought- 
less and  the  selfish  would  like 
to  act  as  they  please  regardless 
of  the  comfort  and  welfare  of 
others,  provided  the  law  would 
permit.  They  who  carelessly 
throw  away  their  glowing  cigar- 
ettes, or  thoughtlessly  drop  their 
orange  or  banana  peelings  on  the 
sidewalk,  have  been  responsible 
for  many  costly  fires  and  serious 
accidents. 

Spitting  on  the  sidewalk  is 
also  an  act  of  the  thoughtless, 
selfish,  or  ignorant  citizen  which 
may  result  in  sickness  and  death 
to  others.  It  spreads  tubercu- 
losis and  other  dread  diseases. 


WE,     THE     PEOPLE 


17 


Such  a  person  is  simply  a  bad 
neighbor  and  poor  citizen,  but 
not  a  criminal  at  heart.  Others, 
as  for  example,  thieves,  have  no 
respect  for  law  and  are  willing 
to  break  it  in  order  to  gain  their 
evil  desires,  hoping  that  they 
will  not  be  caught.  For  protec- 
tion from  the  acts  of  such  peo- 
ple, not  only  criminals,  but  also 
the  thoughtless,  selfish  and  ig- 
norant, we  must  have  laws,  the 
police  and  the  courts. 

More  Examples 

Let  us  have  a  few  more  ex- 
amples of  the  need  of  govern- 
ment. When,  as  a  result  of  the 
Spanish-American  War,  the 
United  States,  in  1898,  came  into 
control  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
smallpox  was  a  very  common 
disease  that  carried  off  thousands 
of  natives  every  year.  We  had 
already  learned  the  value  of  vac- 
cination as  a  safeguard  against 
this  disease.  In  their  ignor- 
ance the  natives  objected  to  being 
vaccinated,  but  our  Government 
insisted,  as  it  does  with  us.  In 
one  year,  more  than  a  million 
people  in  these  islands  were  vac- 
cinated, and  as  a  result  smallpox 
was  banished  from  the  Philip- 
pines within  the  short  space  of 
two  or  three  years.  Only  by 
good  laws  and  a  strong  govern- 
ment were  the  people  of  these 
Islands  saved  from  paying  the 
penalty  of  their  own  ignorance. 

"SWAT  THE  FLY"  is,  in 
many  of  our  towns  and  cities 
a  popular  and  a  wise  slogan,  for 
the  fly  is  a  very  common  carrier 
of  many  kinds  of  contagious 
diseases,  especially  cholera  and 
typhoid  fever.  These,  along  with 
other  epidemics,  are  spread  by 
infected  food  and  drink.   Modern 


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Then  there  are  enemies  of  the  people  who  are  igno- 
rant. It  is  because  some  dealers  who  sell  cakes,  candy 
or  fruit  are  ignorant  of  the  danger  of  flies  that  the 
city  government  sends  men  to  teach  them  the  need  of 
PROTECTING    FOODSTUFFS    FROM    THE    FLIES. 


One  should   not  buy  CANDY  THAT   IS  SOLD   FROM 
CARTS  unless  it  is  covered  with  glass.     The  people, 


through  their  government,  also  hire  experts  to  TEST 
THE  FOOD  SOLD  IN  TINS  AND  JARS.  They  who 
knowingly  sell  impure  foods  are  criminals. 


18 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


:^n^''  * 


It  has  been  shown  that  the  police  are  political  or 
public  servants.  There  are  many  other  kinds  of  public 
servants.  THE  CITY  EMPLOYS  MANY  DOCTORS 
AND  NURSES  to  protect  our  health  and  to  see  that 
the    city's    health    laws    are    obeyed    by    the    people. 


SCHOOL  TEACHERS  ALSO  ARE  PUBLIC  SER- 
VANTS. They  do  work  of  the  greatest  good.  Not 
only   do   they   teach    reading,   writing   and   arithmetic 


but  they  also  give  to  the  girls  lessons  IN   HOUSE- 
KEEPING and  teach  the  boys  useful  trades. 


medical  knowledge  is  showing 
to  us  how  other  insects,  such  as 
the  mosquito,  carry  other  dis- 
eases. Several  of  the  doctors 
in  the  Public  Health  Service  of 
the  United  States  Government 
have  given  their  lives  in  fever- 
ridden  districts  of  Latin  America 
in  order  to  prove  how  yellow 
fever  is  carried  from  insects  to 
human  beings. 

As  a  result  of  this  medical 
knowledge  regarding  the  spread 
of  certain  diseases  by  flies  and 
other  insects,  rules  for  cov- 
ering fruit,  candy  and  food- 
stuffs at  street  corner  stands 
and  on  market  wagons  and 
carts  are  made  and  enforced. 
For  the  same  reason  special 
rules  must  be  made  by  the 
Government  for  the  inspection 
of  meat  markets  and  market  sup- 
plies of  various  kinds. 

Healthful,  nourishing  foods 
may  be  rendered  harmful  by  be- 
ing brought  into  contact  with 
that  which  is  infected.  The  only 
way  to  prevent  such  infection  is 
to  pass  rigid  laws  and  strictly 
to  enforce  them.  Such  laws  as 
those  contained  in  the  Federal 
Pure  Food  and  Drug  Act  are 
necessary  for  public  health. 
This  Act  is  of  great  benefit  and 
help  to  everyone. 

Government  An  Agent 

Government,  as  these  few  il- 
lustrations show,  is  our  agent. 
It  acts  in  the  interest  of  the  com- 
mon good.  It  protects  us.  It 
also  gives  to  each  of  us  a 
better  chance  to  make  the 
most  of  his  talents;  to  be- 
come the  best  and  greatest  man 
that  natural  gifts  will  allow. 
It  is  organized  good  opposed  to 
individual  selfishness.  It  is  all 
of  us  organized  for  the  purpose 


WE,      THE      PEOPLE 


19 


of  providing  for  our  mutual  wel- 
fare. We,  as  working  people, 
are  carpenters,  miners,  painters, 
stenographers,  plasterers,  doc- 
tors, lawyers,  printers,  long- 
shoremen, engineers,  firemen  or 
business  men.  At  the  same  time 
we  are  citizens  and  there  are 
some  things  that  affect  all  of  us, 
no  matter  what  our  occupations. 

Organized  Into  Groups 

In  order  to  take  care  of  these 
common  needs  we  have  organ- 
ized ourselves  into  the  United 
States  of  America,  or  State  of 
New  York,  or  City  of  Cleveland 
or  New  Orleans  for  the  pur- 
pose of  placing  our  common 
needs  in  the  hands  of  other 
workers — public  servants  — 
teachers,  policemen,  street  clean- 
ers, nurses,  legislators,  judges 
and  mayors.  We,  the  People, 
pay  these  workers  of  ours  to 
look  after  our  needs. 

Our  relation  to  governmental 
service  is  very  aptly  illustrated 
by  the  answer  a  father  made  to 
his  little  daughter :  "  Father,'* 
said  the  child,  "  I'm  awfully 
afraid  of  that  policeman  on  the 
corner !  "  "  You  should  not  be, 
daughter,"  was  the  reply,  "  I  am 
helping  to  pay  his  salary  to  have 
him  take  care  of  you." 

This  is  a  good  point  of  view  to 
have  toward  government.  On 
the  other  hand,  each  individual, 
through  government,  is  enabled 
to  enjoy  a  liberty  of  action  which 
would  not  be  possible  under  other 
conditions.  Without  govern- 
ment either  selfish  or  criminal 
individuals  might  well  interfere 
with  our  freedom  of  action  and 
our  right  to  work  and  live  as 
seems  best  to  us.  The  govern- 
ment servants  free  us  from  the 
need   of  spending  our  time   in 


LEGISLATORS  ALSO  ARE  PUBLIC  SERVANTS. 
They  are  chosen  by  the  people  at  election  time  to 
make  new  laws  and  to  provide  the  means  of  enforc- 
ing  the  old   laws.     The   important  work  that   public 


servants  do  for  us  is  clearly  shown  at  the  time  of  an 
accident.  Then  POLICE  PATROLS  AND  CITY  AM- 
BULANCES rush  to  the  place  where  the  accident 
happened  to  give  first  aid  to  the   injured   person  or 


persons.  STREET  CLEANERS  ALSO  ARE  PUBLIC 
SERVANTS.  Clean  streets  and  alleys  make  the  city 
a  much  healthier  place  in  which  to  live. 


20 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


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The  people,  organized  as  government,  do  many 
things  that  we  as  individuals  could  not  do.  This 
shows  the  need  of  government.  The  authority  that 
our  government  has  for  doing  these  things  comes 
from  the  people.  In  July,  1776,  the  DECLARATION 
OF  INDEPENDENCE  was  signed  in  the  name  and  by 


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the  authority  of  the  people.  THE  CONSTITUTION 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  begins  with  the  words, 
"WE,   THE    PEOPLE   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES." 


iMiTniiii    a 

In  1620,  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  signed  the  MAY- 
FLOWER COMPACT.  It  also  was  an  agreement  of 
the  people. 


looking  after  many  things,  and 
thus  permit  us  to  give  more 
time  to  our  individual  duties. 

Democratic  Documents 

The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  in  its  Preamble  gives  one 
of  the  best  statements  of  the  pur- 
poses of  government  to  be  found 
anywhere.     It  says: 

"  We,  the  People  of  the  United 
States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  Union,  establish  Justice, 
insure  domestic  tranquillity,  pro- 
vide for  the  common  defense, 
promote  the  general  welfare,  and 
secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to 
ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do 
ordain  and  establish  this  Consti- 
tution for  the  United  States  of 
America." 

The  Mayflower  Compact,  that 
historic  document  written  by 
the  Pilgrims  who  landed  on  the 
Massachusetts  coast  in  1620,  is 
also  remarkable  for  its  clear 
statement  of  the  purpose  of  gov- 
ernment.   In  part  it  reads: 

"  We  whose  names  are  under- 
written, having  undertaken,  for 
the  glory  of  God,  a  voyage  to 
plant  the  first  colony  in  the 
northern  part  of  Virginia,  do 
solemnly  combine  ourselves  to- 
gether into  a  civil  body  politic  for 
our  better  ordering;  and  to  frame 
such  just  and  equal  laws,  from 
time  to  time  as  shall  be  thought 
most  convenient  for  the  general 
good  of  the  colony,  unto  which 
we  promise  all  due  obedience." 

Here,  also,  we  have  the  idea  of 
the  people  organizing  themselves 
into  a  political  body  in  order  to 
form  rules  for  the  general  good 
of  all.  And  here,  too,  we  note 
the  need  of  obedience  to  these 
common  laws. 


WE,      THE      PEOPLE 


21 


Spirit  of  Democracy 

These  documents  bear  the 
spirit  of  democracy.  Both  con- 
tain the  essential  idea  of  democ- 
racy. The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  begins  with  "  We, 
the  People."  The  Mayflower 
Compact  begins  in  a  similar  man- 
ner :  "  We  do  solemnly  combine 
ourselves."  The  essence  of 
democratic  government  is  to  be 
found  in  these  words:  We  get 
together;  we  combine;  we  look 
after  our  common  interests; 
"  We,  the  People "  must  work 
together  in  order  to  provide  for 
the  common  good.  A  democratic 
government  is  mutual  coopera- 
tion and  organization  of  neigh- 
bors one  with  the  other  for  the 
purpose  of  meeting  the  general 
needs. 

Read  every  great  democratic 
document  of  history,  from  the 
Magna  Carta  and  Bill  of  Rights 
of  England  to  the  nev/  Con- 
stitutions of  the  Republics  of 
China  and  Czecho-Slovakia,  and 
you  will  find  them  alike  in 
their  emphasis  upon  common 
needs.  A  democracy  is  a  society 
cooperating  for  the  good  of  all. 
It  is  a  government  owned  and 
managed  by  its  citizens.  Our 
American  Democracy  is  team 
work  on  a  great  scale.  It  is  a 
great  society  composed  of  indi- 
vidual citizens  who  are  organ- 
ized into  a  political  WE.  The 
American  Democracy  has  been 
organized  in  order  that  the  opin- 
ions and  policies  of  the  citizens 
may  find  free  expression. 

Size  and  Production 

What  picture  comes  in  our 
minds  when  we  say  "  We,  the 
People.^ "  All  too  often  we 
see   a   map,   a   map    of    a   great 


In  1215,  the  nobles  of  Great  Britain  forced  tiie  King 
to  sign  THE  MAGNA  CARTA.  Tliis  great  document 
stated  the  rights  of  the  individual  against  wrongdoing 


on  the  part  of  the  government.  In  1918,  the  PRESI- 
DENT OF  THE  REPUBLIC  OF  CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 
signed,  in  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence  of  his  people.  This  Declara- 
tion is  patterned  afer  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
of  the  United  States. 


22 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


.                               ...-.  1    i-4.a-           / 

jih,'   mw^^a j^\ 

A  strong  democratic  government  can  come  only 
from  a  people  of  character  and  intelligence.  The 
character  of  the  people  of  this  nation  was  shown  in 
the  great  World  War.  When  we  BUILT  SHIPS  AT 
THE  RATE  OF  ONE  A  DAY  we,  as  a  people,  showed 


speed,  resourcefulness  and  earnestness  of  purpose. 
The  spirit  of  the  nation  was  shown  when  millions  of 
our  young   men   WILLINGLY   LEFT  THEIR   HOMES 


FOR  THE  TRAINING  CAMPS  and  Europe,  in  answer 
to  their  PRESIDENT'S  CALL  TO  ARMS. 


country  with  a  long  seacoast, 
with  many  wonderful  harbors, 
with  vast  forests,  and  glorious 
scenery,  with  inexhaustible 
mines  and  great  cities.  In 
America  we  think  too  often  in 
terms  of  size,  of  the  vast  num- 
bers of  bales  of  cotton,  of  the 
millions  of  bushels  of  wheat, 
or  of  the  tremendous  amount 
of  coal  which  we  produce. 

Character  More  Important 

The  real  growth  and  strength 
of  our  nation  or  any  other  na- 
tion depends  upon  something 
more  than  material  things  like 
resources  and  production.  As 
James  Russell  Lowell,  American 
author  and  publicist,  wisely  said : 
"  Material  success  is  good,  but 
only  as  the  necessary  preliminary 
to  better  things"  "  We  the 
People"  and  our  character  are 
even  more  important  than  mines 
and  fertile  fields. 

When  we  think  of  France,  we 
think  of  the  spirit  of  the  French 
as  expressed  in  those  immortal 
words  at  the  Battle  of  Verdun: 
"  They  shall  not  pass!  "  When  we 
think  of  the  Irish,  we  think  of 
a  race  rich  in  humor,  in  imagina- 
tion, in  courage.  Scotland  im- 
mediately brings  to  our  mind  the 
integrity,  the  steadfastness  and 
the  strength  of  will  of  the 
Scotch.  At  the  mention  of 
England,  we  think  of  tenacity  of 
purpose  as  shown  by  Nelson  at 
Trafalgar.  When  the  Italians 
come  to  our  mind,  we  think  of 
their  industry  and  their  love  for 
art  and  music.  When  we  think  of 
China,  we  think  of  its  civiliza- 
tion which  has  existed  for  thou- 
sands of  years;  we  think  of 
Chinese  trustworthiness,  and 
their  tremendous  capacity  for 
work,    of    their    great    sense    of 


WE,      THE      PEOPLE 


23 


justice  and  honor.  When  we  think  of 
the  United  States,  we  think  of  oppor- 
tunity, speed,  individuality,  vision,  ear- 
nestness of  purpose  and  resourcefulness. 

The  World  War 

When  our  love  of  freedom  and  justice 
summoned  us  to  enter  the  Great  War, 
the  American  people  sprang  to  their 
grim  tasks.  The  workers  of  the  nation 
cheerfully  answered  the  call  to  speed  up 
production.  Ships  were  built  at  the  rate 
of  one  a  day.  Business  and  professional 
men  left  their  desks  and  laboratories 
to  place  their  trained  minds  at  their 
country's  service.  Our  young  men,  by 
the  millions,  ungrudgingly  flocked  to  the 
camps  and  from  there  to  the  battlefields 
and  performed  deeds  of  valor,  bringing 
to  the  nation  undying  glory.  History 
gives  no  other  example  equaling  the 
speed  and  energy  and  resourcefulness 
of  America's  response  to  its  President's 
call  to  arms.  Every  great  nation  is  first 
built  upon  the  character  of  its  people. 
As  Viscount  Bryce,  the  author  of  The 
American  Commonwealth,  said:  "The 
History  of  the  nation  is  the  history  of 
the  men  who  compose  the  nation,  and 
not  of  their  dwelling  place." 


But  when  we  have  a  nation  which  is 
rich  in  its  resources  and  has  also  a  peo- 
ple of  noble  character,  then  we  have  the 
ideal  combination  which  makes  a  nation 
fit  to  guide  the  destinies  of  the  world. 

Enlightened  Democracy 

We  must  not  forget  that  America  is 
the  first  great  successful  Democracy, 
and  that  for  scores  of  years  after  its 
foundation  the  rest  of  the  world  prophe- 
sied its  failure.  But  it  did  not  fail. 
American  Democracy  spread.  The  Great 
World  War  was  fought,  in  fact,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  American  idea  of 
Democracy. 

And  now  as  we  look  forward  into  the 
future  we  see  the  doom  of  despotism, 
and  we  entrust  the  happiness  and  safety 
of  the  peoples  of  the  world  to  enlight- 
ened Democracy.  We  have  because  of 
this  great  thought  become  the  leader 
and  inspiration  of  the  nations,  and  we 
must  keep  our  thought  and  purpose 
sound  and  pure. 

It  is  a  combination  of  these  two  essen- 
tials— unlimited  resources  and  people 
of  character  —  that  makes  this  great 
democracy  of  ours  — THE  UNITED 
STATES  OF  AMERICA! 


"  That  we  here  highly  resolve  that  .  .  .  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have 
a  new  birth  of  freedom — and  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the 
people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth." — Abraham  Lincoln. 

4^    4.    4i 

"  It  is  vain  to  hope  for  the  success  of  a  free  Government  without  the  means 

of  insuring  the  intelligence  of  those  who  are  its  source  of  power." — Rutherford  B. 

Hayes. 

4.    4.    4. 

"  The  will  of  the  people  is  the  end  of  all  legitimate  government." — John 

Quincy  Adams. 

4*    4?    4? 

"  We  admit  of  no  government  by  divine  right  .  .  .  that  all  are  upon  an 
equality,  and  that  the  only  legitimate  right  to  govern  is  an  express  grant  of 
power  from  the  governed." — William  Henry  Harrison. 

•i*    4'    rfr 

"  Our  Democracy  means  that  we  have  no  privileged  class,  no  class  that  is 
exempt  from  the  duties  or  deprived  of  the  privileges  that  are  implied  in  the 
words,  *  American  Citizenship.'  " — Theodore  Roosevelt. 


^?ljVi«. 


:^-w^m^Mi 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


OUR  NATIONAL  WEALTH 

The  development  of  our  natural   resources,    such  as  water,  minerals  and  forests,  is  a 
matter  that   should    be    looked   after    by   the    Federal    Government. 


CHAPTER  II 


The  Mechanics  of  Government 

We,  The  People,  Are  the  Members  of  a  Great  Corporation,  and  the  Men 
and  Women  Whom  We  Elect  Are  Our  Business  Managers 


THE  UNITED  STATES  IS  ALL 
OF  VS—WE,  THE  PEOPLE- 
ORGANIZED  FOR  THE  PUR- 
POSE OF  GOVERNMENT.  How  are 
we  organized  for  this  purpose  in  the 
United  States? 

There  are  different  ways  of  carrying 
on  the  business  of  a  nation  just  as 
there  are  many  ways  of  organizing 
a  business.  One 
business  may  be  run 
by  a  single  indi- 
vidual. The  owner  is 
the  boss.  His  de- 
cisions are  final. 
Another  business 
may  be  organized 
into  a  partnership 
with  two  or  more 
individuals  sharing 
the  task  of  looking 
after  its  activities. 
A  corporation  form 
of  organization  may 
be  used  with  stock- 
holders, a  board  of 
directors,  a  presi- 
dent, vice  president, 
secretary,  and  a 
treasurer.  A  nation 
also  may  be  run  by 
one  person  who  con- 
siders it  his  own  private  property  and 
uses  it  for  his  own  selfish  purposes. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  a  nation  may  be 
run  on  the  corporation  plan  with  a  few 
people  or  many  as  the  members,  and  a 
few  or  many  officers  to  run  the  business. 
The  corporation  plan  is  the  one  used 
by  most  governments  today.  We,  the 
people,  are  the  members  and  stockhold- 
ers of  the  corporation.  The  people  whom 
we  elect  to  run  the  business  of  govern- 
ment are  our  own  business  managers. 


Three  Duties 


of 


npHE    three    duties 
■^    Government  are: 

1  To  make  the  law; 

2  To  administer  thelaw; 

3  To  interpret  and  en- 
force the  law. 

All  three  working  to- 
gether promote  the  best 
interests  of  the  people. . .  It 
is  our  duty  to  do  all  in  our 
power,  as  individuals,  to- 
wards making  these  three 
functions  of  Govern- 
ment work  properly. 


When  we  read  the  newspapers  and 
magazines  we  are  often  confused  by 
some  of  the  words  that  are  used  to  de- 
scribe governments.  We  become  fam- 
iliar with  such  words  as  monarchy,  oli- 
garchy and  democracy,  but  we  seldom 
take  the  trouble  to  find  out  what  they 
really  mean.  How  many  of  us  can  tell 
what  a  monarchy  is?  There  are  the  mon- 
archies of  Great 
Britain,  Japan  and 
Spain.  Are  they 
alike  because  each 
has  a  monarch  who 
is  supposed  to  lead? 
Certainly  not;  they 
are  very  different. 
Are  the  Republics 
of  France,  Switzer- 
land, Mexico  and 
the  United  States 
governed  exactly 
alike?  They  differ 
greatly  both  in 
spirit  and  form.  Is 
Great  Britain  with 
its  king  any  less 
democratic  than 
France  with  its 
president?  No, 
both  countries  are 
controlled  by  the 
people.  Both  are  responsive  to  public 
opinion.  In  each,  the  people  have  or- 
ganized themselves  for  the  purpose  of 
government. 

Snap  Judgments 

The  above  questions  show  how  very 
careful  one  must  be  not  to  make  snap 
judgments  about  the  government  of  a 
country.  There  is  a  vast  difference 
between  governments.  Sometimes  a 
name  means  nothing.    Nations  are  often 


25 


26 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


There  are  three  reasons  for  calling  the  United 
States  a  true  democracy.  First,  almost  ALL  THE 
MEN  AND  WOMEN  IN  THIS  COUNTRY  CAN  VOTE. 


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Second,  the  representatives  must  TELL  THE  PEO- 
PLE WHAT  THEY  HAVE  DONE  while  in  office. 
Third,  the  United  States  Constitution,  or  the  State 
Constitutions,  which  contain  the  fundamental  laws, 
can   be   changed    by   the   people's   representatives,   or, 


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In  the  latter  case,  sometimes  by  the  votes  of  the  peo- 
ple themselves.  In  most  of  the  States  of  the  Union 
one  must  be  a  citizen  before  he  can  vote.  Therefore, 
all  who  live  in  this  country,  and  who  are  of  age, 
SHOULD   BECOME   CITIZENS. 


called  radical,  liberal,  or  con- 
servative; yet  we  can  understand 
next  to  nothing  of  the  meaning 
o£  these  terms  until  they  are  ex- 
plained by  the  person  using  them. 
There  are  three  very  important 
tests  which  determine  the  de- 
mocracy o£  any   given   country. 

First  Test  for  Democracy 

The  £rst  test  for  democracy  is 
to  find  out  what  percentage  of 
the  people  of  a  country  can  vote 
and  thus  take  a  legal  part  in  the 
government.  The  right  to  vote 
is  all-important.  Only  those  who 
have  it  can  either  make  laws  di- 
rectly or  elect  representatives. 
To  be  without  the  right  to  vote 
is  to  be  without  the  right  to  de- 
termine the  policies  of  the  gov- 
ernment. A  country,  therefore, 
could  hardly  be  called  demo- 
cratic where  voting  is  limited 
to  a  small  percentage  of  the  peo- 
ple. Such  a  country  leaves  too 
much  power  in  the  hands  of  a 
few.  Therefore,  the  first  es- 
sential of  a  true  democracy  is 
that  practically  all  the  men  and 
women  over  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  shall  have  the  right  to  vote. 

Second  Test  for   Democracy 

The  second  test  for  democracy 
is  to  find  out  if  the  elected  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  are  re- 
quired at  certain  stated  times  to 
tell  the  people  what  they  have 
done  while  in  office.  The  offi- 
cials of  a  democracy  are  re- 
quired to  act  for  the  people. 
They  are  responsible  to  public 
opinion.  They  may  not  do  as 
they  please.  They  should  not 
hold  office  on  account  of  their 
family  name,  nor  because  of 
their  wealth.  They  should  be 
chosen  because  of  their  honesty, 
ability  and  willingness  to  serve. 


THE      MECHANICS      OF       GOVERNMENT 


27 


Third  Test  for  Democracy 

The  third  test  for  democracy, 
and  possibly  the  most  important, 
is  to  find  out  who  has  the  right 
to  change  the  fundamental  law 
of  the  land,  which  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Constitution.  Is  this 
great  right  given  to  a  czar,  or 
a  kaiser,  or  an  emperor?  If  so, 
there  is  no  democracy  in  the 
country.  In  a  democracy,  the 
power  to  change  all  laws,  from 
the  highest  to  the  lowest,  must 
rest  in  the  hands  of  the  people 
or  in  representatives  who  are  di- 
rectly elected  by  the  people.  To 
find  out  how  democratic  a  coun- 
try is,  we  should  always  apply 
this  last  test  and  the  other  two 
just  mentioned.  A  government, 
no  matter  by  what  name  it  is 
known,  that  cannot  stand  these 
three  tests  is  not  a  democracy. 

Government  is  Practical 

The  word  democracy  is  a  com- 
bination of  two  Greek  words 
which,  written  in  English,  look 
like  this:  PEOPLE  to  RULE. 
The  tests  just  described  show 
how  important  the  people  are, 
yet  they  do  not  show  how  the 
people  are  to  rule. 

The  people  can  rule  because 
they  have  organized  themselves 
into  groups  each  of  which  has 
a  very  definite  work  to  do. 
These  groups  are:  first,  local 
groups,  such  as  the  county,  the 
town  or  the  city;  second,  the 
state;  third,  the  nation.  All  of 
these  parts  must  work  together 
with  the  greatest  efficiency,  like 
the  parts  of  an  automobile,  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

Local  Government 

There  are  certain  things  that 
^       each  part  of  a  government  can 
do  best  if  limited  to  a  small  area 


Continental  United  States  has  an  area  of  2,974,000 
square  miles.  Its  population  is  over  105,000,000.  In  a 
country  so  vast,  it  would  be  a  difficult  matter  for  a 
democracy  to  succeed  unless  the  country  was  organ- 
ized for  the  purpose  of  government.  So  the  land 
was  organized   into   FORTY-EIGHT   STATES.      Each 


state   was  organized,   as    Michigan,   into   COUNTIES. 
The    counties   are   divided    into   townships.      Villages, 


towns  and  cities  belong  to  another  group.  Even  the 
CITIES  ARE  DIVIDED  INTO  WARDS.  The  ward 
system  of  the  city  of  St.  Louis  is  here  shown. 


28 


WE      AND       OUR       GOVERNMENT 


The  cities,  towns,  villages,  counties  and  townsliips 
look  after  their  own  affairs.  This  is  the  business  of 
local  government.  Detroit,  for  instance,  must  RE- 
PAIR  ITS  STREETS,   OR   FIX   ITS   WATER   MAINS 


when    they    burst.       PITTSBURGH,    alone,    can    say 
how  high  its  buildings  should  be.     These  things  Inter- 


est only  the  people  living  in  certain  localities.  But  no 
city  or  township  may  alone  do  what  it  likes  with  THE 
PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM.  For  education  is  a  mat- 
ter that  interests  the  people  of  a  whole  state. 


and  to  a  small  number  of  people. 
The  care  of  the  streets  in  De- 
troit is  certainly  not  of  interest  to 
the  people  in  Denver.  Whether 
Pittsburgh  should  limit  the  size 
of  its  skyscrapers,  is  not  for  the 
people  of  St.  Paul  to  decide. 
These  questions  concern  only 
those  people  living  in  the  same 
localities.  They  must  be  settled 
by  county,  town,  or  city  govern- 
ments— local  government. 

In  small  areas  like  a  village,  or 
town,  or  even  a  county,  or,  as  in 
one  of  the  small  cantons  in 
Switzerland,  the  people  may 
come  together  in  a  town  meeting 
and  themselves  vote  taxes  and 
appropriations  or  make  laws. 
This  is  sometimes  called  a  pure 
democracy  in  distinction  to  a 
representative  democracy. 

The  State  Government 

Other  needs,  however,  must 
be  looked  after  by  a  larger  unit 
of  government.  Education,  for 
example,  is  a  matter  which  con- 
cerns too  many  people  to  be 
handled  by  single  independent 
towns.  Family  matters — the  reg- 
ulation of  marriage  and  divorce 
and  the  care  of  children — should 
be  dealt  with  by  an  even  larger 
group  than  that  which  represents 
a  large  city.  The  right  of  prop- 
erty— that  is,  the  right  to  gain  it, 
to  use  it  and  to  dispose  of  it — is 
too  great  a  question  for  small 
groups  to  decide.  Great  masses 
of  people  are  involved.  Nearly 
all  business  is  done  through 
agreements  or  contracts  and  it 
is  essential  that  these  be  properly 
made  and  judged.  It  would  lead 
to  confusion  and  ruin  if  each 
small  local  group  had,  for  ex- 
ample, different  laws  regarding 
contracts.  The  same  rule  holds 
true  regarding  crime,  its  punish- 


THE      MECHANICS      OF      GOVERNMENT 


29 


ment  or  prevention  and  the  pol- 
icy of  dealing  with  criminals. 
The  law  must  be  made  uniform 
by  the  consent  of  many  villages, 
counties,  towns  and  cities,  acting 
together  in  what  is  called  a  state. 
This  is  the  second  largest 
group  or  unit  of  our  government. 
New  York,  Illinois  and  Califor- 
nia are  group  names  familiar  to 
most  of  us.  The  state,  through 
its  power  to  make  and  enforce 
laws,  touches  more  closely  the 
lives  of  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren. It  is  primarily  state  laws 
that  govern  the  personal  affairs 
that  affect  closely  our  liberty  and 
prosperity. 

National  Government 

Just  as  there  are  some  affairs 
best  looked  after  by  each  state,  so 
there  are  others  best  turned  over 
to  the  judgment  of  the  people  of 
all  the  states  acting  together  in 
what  is  known  as  the  United 
States.  This  idea  of  common 
action  by  several  states,  called  a 
federation,  is  primarily  an  Amer- 
ican idea  when  carried  out  into 
a  real  Union  such  as  ours. 

In  our  country  most  of  our 
business  is  transacted  by  the  use 
of  money.  It  would  be  most  in- 
convenient for  us  to  do  business 
in  New  York  in  terms  of  dollars; 
in  California  with  some  other 
kind  of  money,  such  as  English 
pounds  sterling;  in  North  Caro- 
lina with  French  francs;  and  in 
Illinois  with  Italian  lire.  It  is 
very  desirable  that  the  same 
money  standard  be  used  through- 
out the  United  States,  and  that 
this  money  be  uniform  in  weight, 
size,  shape  and  value.  This 
ideal  would  never  be  reached  if 
each  state  acted  independently 
in  the  coining  of  money. 

But   money    is    not    the    only 


The  same  is  true  regarding  the  prevention  or  pun- 
ishment of  crime.  Therefore,  THE  COURTS  ARE 
UNDER    STATE    CONTROL.       But   there    are   some 


things  that  even  a  state  government  cannot  do.  It 
cannot  coin  money.  This  is  the  worl<  of  the  National 
Government.  THE  BUREAU  OF  ENGRAVING  AND 
PRINTING,    Washington,    makes    our    paper    money. 


Each  printed  sheet  of  banknotes  MUST  BE  CARE- 
FULLY EXAIVIINED  by  experts.  Our  gold,  silver  and 
copper  coins  are  made  in  the  U.  S.  mints.  The  larg- 
est government  mint  is  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Other 
mints  are  in  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco,  Denver  and 
Carson  City. 


30 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMEMt 


Only  the  National  Government  can  deal  with  other 
nations.  The  President,  who  is  its  head,  alone  could 
call,  for  instance,  the  CONFERENCE  ON  LIMITA- 
TION OF  ARMAMENTS  at  which  all  nations  invited 


sent  some  of  their  most  able  men.  Our  Secretary  of 
State,  CHARLES  E.  HUGHES,  was  chairman  of  this 
great  Conference.  He  is  the  second  man  from  the  left 
in  the  picture.    Nations  have  diplomats  in  Washington 


'mm-  minimi-' .mifi^,^st^^wsm 


all  the  time.  THE  REPRESENTATIVES  or  DIPLO- 
MATS to  this  country  from  that  great  nation,  Italy, 
are  here  shown.  American  interests  abroad  are 
looked  after  by  our  Ambassadors  and  Consuls. 


matter  that  should  be  handled 
by  the  nation;  there  are  others. 
The  post-office  touches  our  lives 
very  closely  and  must  be  directly 
managed  by  the  National  Govern- 
ment. The  development  of  our 
natural  resources,  such  as  water, 
minerals  and  forests,  is  an- 
other matter  that  should  be 
looked  after  by  the  nation. 

Relations  with  Other  Nations 

Only  the  nation  itself  is  quali- 
fied to  deal  with  the  other  na- 
tions of  the  world.  Every  coun- 
try in  modern  times  has  dealings 
with  other  countries.  These  re- 
lations are  very  important,  inas- 
much as  they  involve  the  ques- 
tion of  peace  or  war.  The  great 
Conference  on  the  Limitation  of 
Armaments,  held  in  Washington 
in  the  winter  of  1921-22,  included 
the  delegates  from  nine  coun- 
tries, and  included  in  its  range 
the  whole  Pacific  Ocean  and  the 
countries  which  it  borders. 
Questions  raised  at  such  a  con- 
ference are  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. A  war  once  started  in 
that  part  of  the  world  would  af- 
fect over  a  billion  people.  It 
would  directly  affect  the  lives 
of  Americans,  Canadians,  Aus- 
tralians, New  Zealanders,  Fili- 
pinos, Japanese,  Koreans,  Chi- 
nese, Englishmen,  Frenchmen, 
Dutchmen,  Russians,  Mexicans, 
and  all  South  and  Central  Amer- 
icans, to  say  nothing  of  its  enor- 
mous consequences  to  the  rest 
of  the  world. 

Naturally  such  important  prob- 
lems cannot  be  managed  by  the 
separate  states  of  the  American 
Union.  All  nations  should  ap- 
point experienced  and  wise  am- 
bassadors, ministers  and  counsel- 
lors to  deal  with  such  questions. 


THE      MECHANICS      OF      GOVERNMENT 


31 


Thus  confusion  is  avoided  when 
the  National  Government  trans- 
acts all  international  business  in- 
stead of  leaving  it  to  the  separate 
states.  It  is  only  by  uniting  into 
the  United  States  of  America 
that  we  are  strong  enough  to  im- 
press other  nations. 

Other  Divisions  of  Government 

So  far  it  has  been  pointed  out 
that  the  people  are  strong  be- 
cause they  have  divided  them- 
selves into  certain  workable 
groups  called  villages,  towns, 
counties,  cities,  states,  and  the 
nation;  that  each  group  has  cer- 
tain duties  to  perform;  that  if  it 
were  not  for  the  harmonious 
working  together  of  all  of  these 
groups  the  people  could  not  rule. 

We  may  now  consider  another 
wise  arrangement  that  we,  the 
people  of  the  United  States,  have 
made  so  that  our  government 
would  work  smoothly.  Just  as 
we  have  divided  ourselves  into 
great  groups,  so  we  have  divided 
the  people  that  represent  us  into 
three  main  divisions,  each  having 
a  special  kind  of  work  to  do. 
These  three  divisions  are  the 
legislative,  the  executive  and  the 
Judicial. 

The  Legislative  Division 

From  the  very  nature  of  the 
case  the  first  task  of  our  govern- 
ment is  to  lay  down  the  rules 
by  which  all  of  us  must  be  guided 
in  our  actions.  These  rules 
must  be  made  to  suit  the  wishes 
of  the  majority,  and  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  the  people  in  the 
community.  As  we  put  it:  The 
Majority  Rules.  In  order  that 
these  rules  may  be  formed  in  an 
orderly  manner,  we  elect  certain 
men  to  study  our  problems  and 
to    put    the    needed    rules    into 


'!ii! 

fe4!i  Si     w  ■          i  *;_ :     i :  m 

r   9^^'^  ^''''] 

(*- 

^^^KKBSlIt  .^..       . .  ;.|<'^. 

Government,  whether  it  be  local,  state,  or  national, 
is  made  up  of  three  main  divisions,  each  having  a 
special  work  to  do.  These  divisions  are  the  legisla- 
tive, the  executive  land  the  judicial.  The  legislative 
division  makes  the  law.  In  a  city,  a  body  usually 
known    as    THE    CITY    COUNCIL,     makes    the    law. 


In  a  state,  THE  STATE  LEGISLATURE,  made  up  of 
legislators,  makes  the  law.  The  legislative  division  of 


the  National  Government  is  CONGRESS,  which  is 
composed  of  two  bodies — the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives.  The  people  elect  members  of  all 
these  three  bodies. 


32 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


After  laws  are  made  they  must  be  administered. 
The  administration  of  law  belongs  to  the  executive 
division.     A  MAYOR  is  the  executive  for  a  city.     He 


administers  the  laws  for  the  city.     A  GOVERNOR  Is 
the  executive  for  a  state  and  administers  the  laws  for 


his  state.  THE  PRESIDENT  is  the  chief  executive. 
He  administer^  the  national  laws.  The  third  division 
is  called  the  judiciary.  Its  members  are  called 
Judges.     Their  duty  is  to  Interpret  and  enforce  the  law. 


laws.  When  such  lawmakers 
represent  the  people  of  a  city, 
they  are  generally  called  city 
councils.  Bodies  of  this  sort 
make  rules  that  are  known  as 
local  ordinances. 

When  the  elected  lawmakers, 
representing  the  various  sections 
of  the  state,  come  together  in  a 
body,  they  are  known  individu- 
ally as  legislators  and  together 
as  the  state  legislature.  For 
convenience  and  thoroughness 
in  handling  their  work,  such 
state  legislatures  are  divided  into 
two  groups,  usually  known  as  the 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives or  the  Assembly. 

When  the  elected  lawmakers 
representing  the  various  states 
come  together  as  a  group,  they 
are  known  individually  as  United 
States  congressmen,  and  collec- 
tively as  Congress.  For  con- 
venience and  thoroughness  in 
handling  its  work,  Congress  is 
divided  into  two  parts  which  are 
called  by  the  same  names  as  the 
two  divisions  of  the  State  legis- 
lature, namely:  the  Senate  and 
the  House  of  Representatives. 

All  of  these  bodies  come  to- 
gether for  the  same  purpose — to 
make  laws.  Each  has  its  own 
field  within  which  it  must  work. 
The  local  group  makes  only  local 
laws;  the  state  group  makes  only 
state  laws;  the  national  group 
makes  laws  which  concern  the 
whole  country. 

The  Executive  Division 

After  laws  are  made  they  must 
be  enforced.  There  must  be 
some  definite  group  chosen  to 
carry  out  the  will  of  the  majority. 
There  must  be  some  group  that 
will  carry  out  the  laws  and  see 
that  the  people  do  their  legal 
duties.      For    this    purpose    the 


THE      MECHANICS      OF      GOVERNMENT 


33 


people  have  selected  a  group  of  officers 
that  is  known  as  the  Executive. 

The  Mayor  is  the  head  of  the  town 
and  city  law-enforcing  body.  Under  the 
mayor  are  several  chief  city  officers  who 
in  turn  have  under  them  men  and  women 
who  administer  the  laws. 

In  the  states  the  executive  consists 
of  the  Governor  and  a  corps  of  chief 
officers,  many  of  whom  are  elected  by 
the  people,  but  some  of  whom  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  senate. 

For  the  nation  the  President  is  the 
chief  executive.  With  him  work  the 
Vice  President  and  a  small  group  of  men 
known  as  the  Cabinet  and  selected  by 
the  President.  These  officers  constitute 
the  group  which  administers  the  law. 

The  Judicial  Division 

Beside  the  law-making  group,  and  the 
law-administrative  group,  there  must  be 
a  law-Judging  group.  The  meaning  of 
the  law  has  to  be  made  clear.  Questions 
continually  arise.  Some  people  claim 
that  a  given  law  means  one  thing,  while 
other  people  say  that  to  them  it  means 
just  the  opposite.  Decisions  must  be 
reached  and  people  must  be  compelled 
to  abide  by  the  laws,  or  to  suffer  the 
legal  penalties  if  they  disobey  them. 
That  part  of  the  government  which  de- 
cides what  the  laws  mean  and  which 
inflicts  penalties  for  violation  of  the 
laws,  is  called  the  judiciary.     The  sep- 


arate persons  in  the  judiciary  ar.e  known 
as  judges. 

A  justice  of  the  peace  is  a  judge  who 
acts  in  a  village  or  township.  A  magis- 
trate is  a  judge  in  a  city.  Judges  of  the 
State  Supreme  Court  decide  upon  the 
meaning  of  the  laws  pertaining  to  the 
state.  They  are  known  as  chief  justices 
and  associate  judges.  The  nation  has  also 
its  law-judging  bod}^ — the  federal  courts, 
with  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
at  its  head.  They  interpret  the  law  as 
it  applies  to  the  United  States,  more 
especially  as  it  touches  the  Constitution. 

The  preceding  paragraph  completes 
a  general  description  of  the  three  great 
functions  of  government:  (1)  to  make 
the  law;  (2)  to  administer  the  law;  (3) 
to  interpret  and  enforce  the  law.  All 
three  working  together  promote  the 
best  interests  of  the  people. 

Government  is  intended  to  improve 
living  conditions.  It  compels  us  to  up- 
hold definite  standards.  It  produces 
order  and  security.  Through  it  we  en- 
joy liberty,  for  it  makes  it  possible  for 
us  to  carry  on  our  chosen  work  without 
interference  from  the  thoughtless  and 
the  criminal.  Government  represents 
the  system  that  we  ourselves  have  built. 
Without  it,  as  a  people,  we  should  be 
weak.  It  is  our  duty  to  do  all  in  oun 
power,  as  individuals,  toward  making 
these  three  divisions  of  government — 
the  legislative,  the  executive  and  the 
judicial — always  work  properly. 


"America  is  another  word  for  opportunity." — Emerson. 

rl?     rt     4* 

"  The  government  is  expressly  charged  with  the  duty  of  providing  for  the 
general  welfare." — Abraham   Lincoln. 

•I?     4?     rt 

" .  .  .  Of  all  the  various  modes  and  lorms  of  government,  that  is  best 
which  is  capable  of  producing  the  greatest  degree  of  happiness  and  safety,  and 
that  is  most  effectually  secured  against  the  danger  of  maladministration.  .  .  . 
When  a  government  shall  be  found  inadequate  or  contrary  to  these  purposes,  a 
majority  of  the  community  hath  an  indubitable,  unalienable  and  indefeasible  right 
to  reform,  alter  or  abolish  it,  in  such  manner  as  shall  be  judged  most  conducive 
to  the  public  weal." — Section  III,  A  Bill  of  Rights,  The  Convention  of  Virginia,  1776. 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


THE  RULE  OF  LIFE  IS   ORDER 

The  game  of  life,  especially  in  a  great  city,  without   rules  or  umpires  or   penalties,  would 
simply  mean  the  trampling  of  the  weak  by  the  strong 


CHAPTER  III 


Law  and  Government 


Law  in  a  Democracy  Grows  out  of  Public  Opinion,  out  of  the  Views  of  a 

Majority  of  the  People 


K' 


ILL  THE  UMPIRE;  he's  rotten!  " 
yell  the  fans  as  the  local  star 
slides  home'  and  is  called  out. 
Rules  and  umpires,  what  troublesome 
things  they  are,  yet  how  necessary 
wherever  people  play  or  work  together! 
"  Play  ball,"  snaps  the  umpire  as  the 
argument  among  the  players  becomes 
hot  over  a  decision.  "  Get  off  the  field," 
he  orders  an  offend- 
ing player  who  uses 
abusive  and  profane 
language. 

Laws,  rules,  um- 
pires, penalties  are 
necessary  in  every 
walk  of  life.  De- 
spite our  dislike  of 
being  hemmed  in  by 
restrictions,  we  may 
not  act  as  we  please. 
Life  is  too  complex. 
We  live  among  too 
many  neighbors. 
The  game  of  life 
without  rules  or  um- 
pires or  penalties 
would  simply  mean 
the  trampling  of  the 
weak  by  the  strong. 
This  would  be  a 
world  in  which  sel- 
fishness would  be  supreme.  There  would 
be  no  respect  for,  and  understanding  of, 
the  rights  of  others. 

How  Rules  Began 

How  have  many  old  customs — every- 
day customs — of  life  arisen?  Why,  in 
the  wedding  ceremony,  is  a  ring  used? 
Why  is  there  a  "best  man"?  Why  are 
straw  hats  put  away  each  year  on  the 
fifteenth  day  of  September,  rather  than 
on  the  thirtieth?     Why,  in  the  United 


A  Command 


T  AW  is  a  command  of 
Government  which 
says  "Thou  shalt,"  or 
"Thou  Shalt  not"  .  .  . 
Every  resident  of  a  com- 
munity, whether  a  citizen 
or  not,  must  obey  the 
law  .  .  .  The  law  of  the 
land  must  be  upheld  at 
all  costs .  .  .  The  Govern- 
ment must  execute  the 
law  as  it  is,  not  as  in- 
dividual citizens  think  it 
should  be  executed. 


States,  do  we  lift  our  hats  to  the  ladies? 
Why  do  drivers  of  wagons  and  auto- 
mobiles in  America  use  the  right  side 
of  the  road,  but  in  England  the  left? 

These  common  every-day  customs  and 
habits  are  rules  which  have  been  carried 
down  through  generations  of  people, 
from  father  to  son,  until  today  we  do 
not  even  question  them.  They  are  part 
of  our  daily  life. 
In  a  great  many 
cases  they  run  back 
to  a  time  before  a 
record  of  the  deeds 
and  thoughts  of  man 
was  kept. 


Custom  and  Caste 

In  India  customs 
have  been  carried  to 
such  an  extreme  as 
to  separate  the  peo- 
ple of  that  great 
country  into  groups 
so  distinct  and  so 
cut  off  from  each 
other  that  a  member 
of  one  group,  usu- 
ally called  a  caste, 
cannot  marry  into 
another.  Differences 
between  groups  are 
so  sharp  that  members  of  one  of  these 
groups  cannot  eat  with  the  members 
of  another,  cannot  even  touch  the  other's 
hand  or  garment  without  losing  caste. 
In  India  an  individual  is  born  into  his 
work,  into  his  occupation,  into  a  place 
in  life,  and  he  can  never  move  into 
another  place,  because  he  belongs  to  a 
certain  established  caste. 

How  different  the  United  States 
would  be  if  every  citizen  belonged  to 
a  caste!     If,  because  a  boy's  father  was 


35 


36 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


WHEN  A  PERSON  COMES  TO  THIS  COUNTRY, 
it  is  good  for  him  to  learn  our  customs.  He  tiius 
saves  himself  a  great  deal  of  trouble.     He  should  not 


be  content  to  live  all  the  time  in  the  FOREIGN 
QUARTERS  OF  A  CITY.  By  mixing  with  Ameri- 
cans he  will  get  to  know  their  ways  and  soon  he  will 


make  friends  and  will  be  more  successful  in  GET- 
TING A  JOB.  Working  in  with  the  customs  of  a 
country  will  make  life  go  more  smoothly  and  agree- 
ably for  him.  It  is  also  in  the  interests  of  the  United 
States  that  all  should  live  in  harmony  with  its  cus- 
toms and  laws.  There  is  another  reason  why  one 
should  learn  the  customs  of  a  country  in  which  he  in- 
tends to  live.  By  so  doing  he  will  have  a  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  laws  of  the  country. 


a  bookkeeper,  he  too,  by  custom, 
must  be  a  bookkeeper.  What  a 
queer  country  it  would  be  if  the 
daughters  of  carpenters  were 
forced  to  marry  only  carpenters' 
sons!  This  is  just  the  meaning 
of  caste.  In  India  these  customs 
are  obeyed  more  fully  than  many 
laws  such  as  we  have  in  the 
United  States.  Although  we 
may  laugh  at  these  castes  of 
India,  we  must  remember  that 
every  nation  has  its  own  way  of 
doing  things  and  the  customs  of 
one  race  often  seem  foolish  or 
outlandish  to  another  race. 

Do  As  the  Romans  Do 

There  is  an  old  saying :  "  When 
in  Rome  do  as  the  Romans  do." 
This  is  simply  another  way  of 
saying  that  one  should  respect 
the  customs  of  others  and  not 
criticise  those  customs  simply 
because  they  are  different 
from  our  way  of  doing  things. 
If  you  go  to  another  country, 
it  is  generally  a  good  thing 
to  fit  in  with  the  customs  of 
the  people  living  there.  You 
thus  save  yourself  much  time 
and  avoid  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 
This  also  applies  to  those  who 
come  to  this  country.  Respect- 
ing the  customs  of  others  makes 
friends  for  you;  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  you  to  secure  work 
more  easily.  Working  in  har- 
mony with  the  customs  of  a 
country  makes  life  go  more 
smoothly  and  far  more  agreeably 
in  every  way. 

Custom  and  Law 

When  the  government  finds  it 
necessary  to  back  customs  by 
force,  by  political  action,  then 
a  custom  becomes  a  law. 

It  might  be  that  an  old  custom 
has    become    very    bad    for    the 


LAW      AND      GOVERNMENT 


37 


people  to  follow,  and  must  be 
changed  by  law.  On  the  other 
hand  laws  may  have  to  be  passed 
to  meet  new  customs  created  by 
newconditions.  In  the  latter  case, 
for  example,  the  new  conditions 
created,  in  1922,  by  the  wide  use 
of  the  radio,  have  compelled  the 
Secretary  of  Commerce,  Herbert 
C.  Hoover,  to  hold  conferences 
to  find  out  if  the  Government's 
wireless  sending  and  receiving 
stations  are  being  interfered  with 
by  the  activity  of  the  thousands 
of  enthusiastic  radio  fans 
throughout  the  country.  With- 
out doubt  new  laws  will  have  to 
be  passed  to  regulate  the  opera- 
tion of  radios  in  the  homes. 

Law  is  a  command  of  govern- 
ment which  says  "THOU 
SHALT,"  or  "THOU  SHALT 
NOT,"  and  imposes  a  penalty 
for  its  violation.  It  is  the  written 
will  of  the  people  with  the  force 
of  the  government  behind  it. 
Nearly  everyone  remembers  be- 
ing told  about  the  laws  of  the 
Medes  and  the  Persians  which 
never  changed.  Today  in  modern 
democracies  there  are  no  laws  of 
this  character.  Law  should 
change  as  conditions  of  life 
change,  in  order  to  meet  the 
new  needs.  Law  in  a  democ- 
racy grows  out  of  public  opin- 
ion, out  of  the  views  of  a  ma- 
jority of  the  people. 

A  few  houses  located  at  a 
cross  road  grow  into  a  village; 
this  village  grows  into  a  city, 
and  possibly  may  become  a  great 
center  of  population  like  Chi- 
cago or  Philadelphia  or  New 
York.  As  the  change  takes 
place,  new  laws  have  to  be 
passed  in  order  to  meet  the  many 
new  needs  and  new  problems. 


If  one  knows  the  customs  or  habits  of  a  country, 
he  understands,  in  a  great  measure,  its  laws.  Cus- 
toms or  habits  create  laws.  New  Jaws  are  passed  to 
take  care  of  new  customs  that  arise.  The  recent  wide 
use  of  the  radio,  for  example,  has  made  the  govern- 
ment, through  its  Secretary  of  Commerce,  HERBERT 
C.  HOOVER,  call  conferences  to  find  out  if  new  laws 
should  be  passed  to  regulate  the  use  of  the  radio  in 


the  homes.     Law  is  a  command  of  government  which 
says,    "THOU    SHALT"    and    "THOU    SHALT    NOT," 
and  imposes  a  penalty  for  its  violation. 


38 


WE      AND       OUR      GOVERNMENT 


■  »f?»'!|S*s^^*«Lii^fc- 


There  are  some  laws  that  are  called  Constitutional 
or  Fundamental  Laws.  In  the  United  States  such 
laws  are  found  in  the  Federal  Constitution  or  in 
the  different  state  constitutions.  In  1775  THE  AMER- 
ICAN COLONISTS  left  their  homes,  farms  and  shops 
to  fight  for  the  fundamental  right  of  a  people  to  tax 
themselves  through  their  own   representatives.     The 


Constitutional  Law 

In  order  that  people  may  live 
.and  work  together  successfully, 
there  are  a  few  rules  absolutely 
essential  in  their  nature.  These 
laws  are  called  Constitutional 
laws.  We  speak  of  them  as  the 
fundamental  laws  of  the  land. 

In  the  United  States  such  fun- 
damental rules  are  found  in  the 
Constitution  or  in  the  different 
state  constitutions.  They  are 
laws  which  protect  us  against 
the  danger  of  oppression.  They 
also  organize  the  form  of  govern- 
ment in  which  we  live  and  which 
has  been  described  in  chapter 
two.  Many  of  the  most  impor- 
tant fundamental  laws  are  found 
in  a  number  of  outstanding  docu- 
ments of  England,  such  as: 

The  Magna  Carta, 

The  Habeas  Corpus  Act, 

The  Bill  of  Rights. 

Magna  Carta,  a  great  historical 
document  given  to  the  world  in 
the  year  1215,  clearly  states  the 
rights  of  the  individual  against 
aggression  on  the  part  of  a  gov- 
ernment. This  document  is  one 
of  the  foundation  stones  of  free, 
democratic  and  constitutional 
government.  The  Habeas  Cor- 
pus Act,  of  the  year  1679,  is 
another  landmark  of  human  lib- 
erty. It  clearly  establishes  the 
principle  that  "  every  human  be- 
ing who  is  not  charged  with  or 
convicted  of  a  known  crime  is 
entitled  to  personal  liberty." 
The  Bill  of  Rights,  1689,  re- 
states these  principles  of  human 
liberty. 

American  Documents 

America  also  has  given  many 
documents  to  the  world  which 
state  principles  of  freedom. 
When    the    American    colonists 


LAW      AND      GOVERNMENT 


39 


in  1765  protested  against  royal 
oppression  and  the  levying  o£ 
taxes  without  representation 
they  made  a  Declaration  of 
Rights  and  Grievances.  The  Vir- 
ginia Bill  of  Rights,  1776,  was 
the  immediate  forerunner  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence, 
unanimously  and  formally  adop- 
ted July  4,  1776.  This  latter 
document  is  the  American 
Magna  Carta,  and  asserts  the 
right  of  the  people  to  form  a 
constitution  and  a  government 
of  their  own.  The  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  in  which 
the  American  Government  is  or- 
ganized and  its  principles  of  lib- 
erty stated,  has  become  a  model 
the  world  over  for  new  govern- 
ments to  copy.  The  foundations 
of  liberty  and  free  government 
are  to  be  found  in  all  these  great 
historic  documents. 

The  Organization  of  a  Club 

When  you  organize  an  athletic 
club  or  a  debating  society,  one 
of  the  first  things  you  do  is  to 
put  in  writing  the  purpose  of 
the  club,  the  names  and  duties 
of  the  officers,  when  the  club 
is  to  hold  its  meetings,  how 
much  the  dues  are  to  be,  and  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  the  in- 
dividual members  of  the  club. 
When  you  do  this  you  write  a 
constitution. 

The  constitution  of  a  nation, 
such  as  the  United  States,  fills 
the  same  need  and  meets  the 
same  purpose  in  your  political 
life  as  this  constitution  of  your 
athletic  club  does  in  your  ath- 
letic life.  Most  countries  today 
have  a  written  constitution  of 
this  kind.  It  gives  stability  and 
purpose  to  the  government. 


The  men,  who  in  1776  WROTE  THE  DECLARA- 
TION OF  INDEPENDENCE,  stated  in  this  great  docu- 
ment the  right  of  a  people  to  govern  themselves. 
They  fought  for  this  right  and  won.    The  Constitution 


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cf  the  United  States  has  become  a  model  the  world 
over  for  new  governments  to  copy.  This  picture  is 
INDEPENDENCE  HALL,  Philadelphia.  Here  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed.  Here  Con- 
gress sat  from  1778  until  the  close  of  the  Revolution. 
Here,  in  1787,  the  Federal  Convention  assembled  to 
frame  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 


40 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


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This  Constitution  states  among  other  things  three 
fundamental  laws.  The  first  great  fundamental  law 
is  the  RIGHT  OF  FREE  SPEECH.     The  second  is  the 


RIGHT   OF   A   FREE    PRESS,   and   the   third   is   the 


f<.      j^MiS'^' -  ^^'    A 

RIGHT  TO  HOLD  MEETINGS  to  discuss  any  matter 
that  a  group  of  citizens  may  wish  to  discuss.  But  no 
one  may  abuse  these  rights  to  the  harm  of  the  citizen 
or  the  government.  It  was  for  these  rights  that  the 
PILGRIM  FATHERS  came  to  this  country.  The  illus- 
tration shows  their  first  meeting  in  America. 


Bill  of  Rights 

Every  constitution  of  a  coun- 
try should  contain  three  essen- 
tial points.  It  usually  states 
most  clearly  in  the  beginning 
the  rights  and  the  privileges  of 
the  individual  citizen.  Very 
often  this  is  called  the  Bill  of 
Rights.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  for  example,  as 
well  as  every  individual  state 
constitution,  contains  certain 
rights  which  are  given  to  every 
citizen,  such  as  the  right  to  a 
trial  by  jury  to  those  charged 
with  crime.  It  also  guarantees 
the  right  of  free  speech,  a  free 
press,  and  the  right  to  hold  meet- 
ings to  discuss  any  matter  which 
a  group  of  citizens  may  wish  to 
discuss. 

Organization  of  Government 

Every  club  or  society  must  be 
organized ;  so  must  every  govern- 
ment. Orderly  government 
means  one  which  works  in  an 
organized  and  regular  manner. 
Every  constitution  states  how 
the  government  is  to  be  organ- 
ized. The  National  Constitution 
and  state  constitutions  show  how 
Congress  and  the  State  Legis- 
latures are  to  be  made  up,  how 
their  members  are  to  be  elected 
and  how  long  they  are  to  remain 
in  office.  These  constitutions 
also  tell  what  officials  are  to  exe- 
cute the  law,  indicate  the  re- 
quirements for  and  the  length  of 
the  terms  of  such  executives,  and 
the  manner  of  their  selection. 

Amending  a  Constitution 

Constitutions  must  be  changed 
from  time  to  time  to  meet  new 
conditions,  otherwise  there  are 
likely  to  be  violent  disputes  and 
revolution.    Through  changes  in 


LAW      AND       GOVERNMENT 


41 


constitutions  (called  amend- 
ments), the  desires  of  the  people 
are  newly  expressed  from  time 
to  time  as  new  needs  arise  in 
regard  to  what  shall  be  the  fun- 
damental law  of  the  land.  Such 
amendments  allow  for  progress 
in  government. 

It  is  dangerous  to  change  a 
fundamental  law  too  quickly. 
Our  Constitution  should  not  be 
amended  unless  a  large  majority 
of  the  people  of  the  United 
States  demand  it,  and  not  until 
time  is  given  to  think  over  the 
wisdom  of  the  change  proposed. 

A  good  government  is  not  al- 
ways a  government  that  changes 
too  rapidly,  or  a  government  that 
meets  every  whim  and  fancy  of 
the  people.  Individuals  are 
fickle  and  change  their  minds 
very  quickly.  Constitutional 
changes  should  be  made  only 
after  long  and  sober  thought. 

Statutory  Law 

Other  laws  are  not  so  funda- 
mental in  their  nature  as  are  con- 
stitutional laws.  There  are  many 
rules  which  are  likely  to  need 
changes  at  frequent  intervals. 
Laws  of  this  character  are  left 
to  Congress  or  a  State  Legisla- 
ture to  look  after.  They  are 
called  Statutes. 

Everyone  should  have  a  clear 
idea  of  the  difference  between 
Constitutional  Law  and  Statu- 
tory Law.  Constitutional  Laws 
are  fundamental,  and  can  be 
changed  or  added  to  only  through 
special  amendment ;  Statutory 
Laws  are  not  so  fundamental, 
and  so  can  be  changed  or  added 
to  when  desired,  by  a  simple  act 
of  the  elected  lawmakers,  or,  in 
some  states,  in  special  elections 
by  the  people  themselves. 


The  Constitution  may  be  amended.  The  16th  Amend- 
ment, WHICH  GAVE  CONGRESS  THE  POWER  TO 
LEVY  AND  COLLECT  AN  INCOIVIE  TAX  was  passed 
by  the  Legislatures  of  the  several  states;  then  by 
the  61st  Congress,  February  25,  1913. 


YES 


NO 


D 

D 


AMENDMENT  NO.  1 


YES 


NO 


AMEN'D\rENT  NO.  2 


YES 


NO 


D 
D 


"Shall  the  proposed  amendment  to  section 
hrcome  cnliiled  to  vote  by  attaining  majonly,  by  n 
Qi.il  wnic  KngliRh;  and  authoniing  (he  legisljture 


AMENDMENT  NO.  U 

ic  o(  article  two  o(  the  constitution,  r 


YES 


NO 


D 
D 


AMENDMENT  NO.  5 


YES 


NO 


D 
D 


AMENDMENT  NO.  O 


YES 


NO 


n 


AMENDMENT  NO.  7 

"ShaJ]  the  proposed  .imendmcnt  to  .section  eieht  o(  article  seven  of  the  Constitutioi 
of  that  jxirtion  of  the  old  Erie  canal  in  the  county  of  Ilerkimer  between  the  easterly  portioQ  of  i 
the  counties  of  Herkimer  and  Oneida,"  be  approved? 


CONSTITUTIONAL  AMENDMENTS,  on  the  other 
hand,  are,  in  many  states,  submitted  directly  by  the 
State  Legislature  to  the  people  for  approval.  There 
are  other  laws  called  Statutory  Laws.  These  can  be 
changed  by  a  simple  act  of  the  elected  lawmakers  of 
a  State  Legislature,  or  in  some  states  by  the  people 
themselves  at  a  special  or  regular  election. 


42 


WE      AND       OUR       GOVERNMENT 


Every  citizen  must  obey  the  fundamental  laws  of 
his  state  and  nation.  He  must  obey  statutory  laws 
which  have  been  passed  at  the  CAPITOL  by  Congress, 


or  passed  by  the  legislature  of  a  state  at  the  STATE 
CAPITOL,  for  example,  of  Texas.  He  must  also  obey 
local  ordinances  which  have  been  passed  by  the  local 


law-making  body  at  the  CITY  HALL. 
York's   City    Hall. 


This  is  New 


Local  Law§  or  Ordinances 

In  local  communities,  such  as 
villages,  counties  and  cities, 
many  minor  matters  which  ap- 
ply to  the  daily  conduct  of  the 
people  of  a  community  must  be 
looked  after  by  the  local  gov- 
ernment. Street  traffic  rules  are 
a  good  example.  Certain  streets 
in  congested  quarters  in  large 
cities  are  roped  off  for  children 
to  play  in,  and  rules  are  made 
that  vehicles  cannot  go  through 
such  "  play  streets."  People 
living  in  tenements  are  not  al- 
lowed to  clutter  up  fire-escapes 
with  bedding  or  boxes,  since  in 
case  of  fire  this  would  hinder 
people  from  getting  to  the  street. 
An  influenza  epidemic  strikes 
a  city.  The  Health  Department 
must  do  everything  possible  to 
prevent  street  cars  being  over- 
crowded and  it  must  quarantine 
the  homes  of  people  who  have 
the  £u.  When  the  epidemic  is 
over,  these  rules  can  be  repealed. 
Such  problems  are  local  and 
often  temporary  in  their  nature. 

In  every  village  or  city  an  in- 
dividual will  find,  and  will  have 
to  obey,  a  great  many  minor  laws 
of  this  character.  These  rules 
are  called  Local  Ordinances,  and 
are  rules  made  by  a  city  depart- 
ment under  power  given  by  law. 
They  are  passed  by  a  city  coun- 
cil or  by  some  other  body  of 
local  officials. 

Every  citizen,  then,  must  obey 
fundamental  laws  of  the  land 
which  are  found  in  the  Constitu- 
tions. He  must  obey  statutory 
laws,  which  have  been  passed  by 
Congress  or  by  state  legislatures. 
He  must  also  obey  local  ordi- 
nances which  are  designed  to 
meet  local  needs. 


LAW      AND      GOVERNMENT 


43 


Where  New  Laws  Come  From 

Every  legislature  has  all  sorts 
of  proposals  made  to  it  to  put 
into  law.  Some  may  suggest 
that  certain  movie  films  are 
bad  for  children  to  see,  and 
may  urge  the  state  to  appoint  a 
commission  to  censor  such  ob- 
jectionable films.  A  group  of 
working  people,  seeing  the  dan- 
gers of  unprotected  machinery  in 
factories,  may  request  the  pas- 
sage of  a  law  making  necessary 
the  introduction  of  safety  de- 
vices. A  flood  may  have  swept 
over  a  town  and  a  bill  be  intro- 
duced to  widen  and  deepen  the 
river  channel  in  question.  An 
epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  breaks 
out  in  a  city,  and  A  bill  is  drawn 
up  to  build  a  new  filtration 
plant.  Congress  may  have  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  study 
some  very  complex  question, 
such  as  immigration  or  savings 
banks,  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing a  complete  report  and  recom- 
mendations for  a  new  law.  Pro- 
posals flow  in  from  every  direc- 
tion to  a  legislature. 

Kinds  of  Law 

Every  citizen  is  subject  to  two 
kinds  of  law:  criminal  and  civil. 
A  crime  is  an  offense  against 
public  security  and  peace.  An 
individual  who  commits  a  crime 
has  injured  his  state  or  his  com- 
munity, and  must  be  punished  by 
the  state  or  community.  Any 
person  breaking  a  law  is  subject 
to  arrest  and  punishment  by  the 
government.  Penalties  are  at- 
tached to  every  law.  If  a  person 
murders  another,  he  may  be 
electrocuted  or  imprisoned  for 
life.  If  he  breaks  the  traffic 
rules,  he  may  be  fined  a  few  dol- 
lars or  sent  to  jail  for  one  day. 


Every  national,  state  or  local  legislature  has  all 
sorts  of  proposals  made  to  enact  into  law.  A  group 
of  working  people,  seeing  the  danger  of  unprotected 
machinery,  may  request  the  legislature  of  their  state 
to  pass  a  law  making  necessary  the  introduc- 
tion    of     SAFETY     DEVICES.       ...      A     FLOOD 


HAS    SWEPT   OVER   A   TOWN    and   a   bill    is   intro- 
duced to  widen  and  deepen  the  river  channel.     The 


national  legislature  may  have  appointed  a  committee, 
such  as  a  U,  S.  Senate  Committee,  to  study  some 
question  as,  for  example,  IMMIGRATION.  Each  of 
these  measures  may  in  time  become  law. 


44 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


,1' '  « 

'\y^  ^^^T'^Si    " 

r. 

C;y     T  *  ^l'}^  ■■ 

Every  Citizen  is  subject  to  two  kinds  of  law, 
criminal  and  civil.  He  who  breaks  a  law  must  pay 
a  penalty.  If  a  person  BREAKS  A  TRAFFIC  RULE, 
he   may   be  fined   a  few  dollars  or  sent  to  jail   for 


1 

LjjL 

1 

■t^i.-iiiM' 

one  day.      If   his   offence   is   greater,  :HE    MAY   BE 
LOCKED   UP   IN   JAIL   FOR  A   LONG  TIME. 


The  highest  court  in  the  United  States  is  THE 
SUPREME  COURT.  From  its  decisions  there  is 
no  appeal.    This  court  meets  in  the  Capitol. 


A  Difficult  Matter 

Between  these  two  extremes 
of  sentences  are  hundreds  of 
other  laws,  each  with  its  indi- 
vidual punishment  consisting  of 
imprisonment,  a  fine,  or  the  loss 
of  the  privilege  of  citizenship. 
It  is  a  difficult  matter  at  times 
to  know  what  penalties  should 
be  attached  to  a  crime.  A  pen- 
alty, if  possible,  should  always 
fit  the  nature  and  magnitude  of 
the  crime. 

When  a  person  breaks  a  crim- 
inal law,  he  may  be  arrested  by  a 
police  officer,  if  there  is  evidence 
that  he  has  broken  the  law.  Even 
a  citizen  may  arrest  the  offender 
in  case  of  threatened  violence. 
Wariants  or  permits  to  arrest 
are  required,  however,  for  the 
more  serious  crimes.  A  warrant 
is  issued  by  a  court,  after  evi- 
dence has  been  given  and  sworn 
to  that  a  certain  named  indi- 
vidual has  committed  a  specified 
crime. 

The  Grand  Jury  is  another 
body  which  may  swear  out 
warrants  for  the  arrest  of  people 
who  have  committed  serious 
crimes.  It  is  a  body  of  citizens 
who  are  called  together  to  in- 
vestigate the  evidence  of  crimes. 
The  district  attorney  or  some 
other  prosecuting  official  rep- 
resenting the  state,  presents  the 
evidence  and  if  the  evidence  is 
strong  enough,  the  grand  jury 
swears  out  a  warrant  charging 
an  individual  with  the  crime  and 
orders  his  arrest. 

Rights  of  the  Accused 

Constitutions,  both  State  and 
Federal,  guarantee  an  individual 
accused  of  crime  certain  rights 
and  privileges.  A  citizen  who  is 
charged  with  felony  (a  serious 
crime  with  a  penalty  of  imprison- 


LAW      AND       GOVERNMENT 


45 


ment  or  worse),  is  entitled  to  a  speedy 
trial  by  a  jury.  The  jury  system  is  a 
most  important  part  of  American  jus- 
tice. It  secures  for  each  individual  ac- 
cused of  a  crime  a  fair  trial  by  his  fellow 
citizens,  A  jury  hears  all  the  evidence 
and  makes  a  decision  on  evidence  given. 
It  is  generally  composed  of  twelve  indi- 
viduals (in  minor  cases  sometimes  of 
six),  and  in  order  to  convict,  must  give 
a  unanimous  opinion.  If  the  verdict  is 
not  unanimous,  another  trial  is  given  the 
accused  unless  the  case  is  dropped. 

An  individual  charged  with  a  crime 
cannot  be  harshly  treated.  He  is  en- 
titled to  the  services  of  a  lawyer,  is 
given  the  privilege  of  going  free  on 
giving  bond  that  he  will  appear  when 
required — except  where  extreme  crime 
has  been  committed — and  is  presumed 
to  be  innocent  until  found  guilty.  In 
all  criminal  cases  the  state — the  people 
who  have  been  harmed — are  represented 
by  a  district  attorney  or  some  other  pub- 
lic official,  while  the  accused  is  repre- 
sented by  his  own  lawyer.  In  case  he  has 
not  enough  money  to  pay  for  one,  the 
state  must  see  that  the  accused  has  a 
lawyer  to  defend  him. 

Civil  Law 

Many  disputes  arise  among  people 
over  questions  of  contracts,  or  of 
money.  One  individual,  for  example, 
makes  a  contract  with  another  to  build 
a  house.  The  contract  is  broken  by 
the  builder.  He  may  be  sued  for  dam- 
ages on  the  part  of  the  individual  who 
has  made  the  contract  with  him  for  the 
house.  Possibly  you  have  bought  a 
home.  After  buying  it  you  have  dis- 
covered that  you  have  not  a  clear  title 
to  the  land  upon  which  the  house  stands. 
You  must  take  the  question  to  court  in 
order  to  determine  who  really  owns  the 
property.  A  child  is  run  over  and  hurt 
or  killed  by  an  automobile.  The  parents 
of  the  child  have  the  right  to  sue  for 
damages.     An   individual   dies  without 


a  will  and  leaves  property.  The  division 
of  this  property  must  be  settled  by  the 
courts. 

Criminal  and  Civil  Law 

All  cases  of  this  character  come  under 
the  heading  of  Civil  Law.  Many  acts, 
of  course,  are  both  civil  and  criminal. 
An  automobile  driver  may  have  been 
reckless  and  broken  the  law  and  at  the 
same  time  injured  a  person.  He  may 
be  tried  in  a  criminal  court  by  the  state, 
and  he  may  at  the  same  time  be  sued 
by  the  injured  for  damages. 

Courts  and  judges  have  two  purposes. 
In  the  first  place  they  are  organized  to 
find  out.  whether  an  individual  has 
committed  a  crime,  and  if  he  has,  to 
sentence  him — to  punish  him.  Courts 
are  also  organized  to  settle  disputes 
between  people  over  the  question  of 
personal  and  property  rights.  The  first 
group  of  courts  are  called  Criminal 
Courts,  the  second  Civil  Courts.  Special 
courts,  called  Probate  or  Surrogate 
Courts,  handle  cases  of  inheritance  or 
wills. 

Constitutional  Decisions 

In  the  United  States  the  courts  have 
another  important  function  to  perform. 
Certain  very  fundamental  rules  are 
found  in  the  Constitution  of  a  State 
or  of  the  United  States,  as  has  been 
shown  before.  In  America,  courts  deter- 
mine whether  any  statute,  law,  or  ordi- 
nance is  in  conflict  with  constitutional 
law.  This  power  is  very  important  as 
it  gives  the  court  the  task  of  guarding 
the  constitution  against  assault  by  legis- 
lation. A  law,  if  declared  unconstitu- 
tional by  a  court,  cannot  be  enforced. 

Everyone,  under  all  circumstances, 
should  obey  the  laws.  Every  resident  of 
a  community,  whether  a  citizen  or  not, 
should  obey  the  laws.  The  laws  of  the 
land  must  be  upheld  at  all  costs.  The 
government  must  execute  the  laws  as 
they  are,  not  as  individual  citizens  think 
they  should  be  executed. 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society- 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


THE  STATUE  OF  LIBERTY 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  has  been  a  beacon    light  for  new  nations 


CHAPTER  IV 


The  Constitution  of  the  United  States 


"The  Most  Wonderful  Work  Ever  Struck  Off  at  a  Given  Time  by  the 
Brain  and  Purpose  of  Man." — Gladstone 


WE  HAVE  LATELY  MADE 
THE  ACQUAINTANCE  of  a 
number  of  new  states,  among 
others,  Poland,  Jugo-Slavia,  Hungary  and 
Finland.  We  have  seen  these  countries 
start  out  on  stormy  careers  of  independ- 
ent statehood,  struggling  to  throw  off 
the  many  infant  diseases  that  afflict 
most  young  nations  and  governments. 
Just  as  the  life  of  a 
baby  is  often  threat- 
ened, so  the  life  of 
an  infant  nation  is 
often  in  danger. 

It  is  not  an  easy 
task,  all  mothers 
know,  to  raise  ba- 
b  i  e  s.  Statesmen, 
who  may  be  looked 
upon  as  political 
mothers,  find  it  just 
as  difficult  to  raise 
nations  to  maturity. 
An  infant  state, 
born  as  the  result  of 
war,  does  not  easily 
settle  down  under  a 
permanent  form  of 
government  that  in- 
sures peace  and 
prosperity  to  its 
citizens.  These  new 
countries  and  their  experiences  make 
this  all  too  plain.  Army  factions,  dis- 
gruntled leaders,  debts  and  depreciated 
paper  money,  riots,  dissatisfied  soldiers, 
racial,  political,  class  and  religious  preju- 
dices, fanned  to  white  heat,  are  just  a 
few  of  the  problems  which  new  nations 
must  settle  before  real  stability  is  se- 
cured. Courage,  statesmanship,  tolera- 
tion, and  faith  in  the  future  are  needed 
by  these  leaders  who  guide  a  newly 
launched  ship  of  state  on  its  first  voyage. 


Thirty  Minutes 

TT  takes  but  thirty  min- 
-■■  utes  to  read  "the 
oldest  written  instru- 
ment of  Government  in 
actual  use."  There  is 
no  better  way  to  know 
and  to  understand  the 
CONSTITUTION  of  the 
UNITED  STATES  than 
to  read  it.  No  writer  can 
explain  it  in  more  simple 
or  concise  language  than 
is  used  in  the  CONSTI- 
TUTION itself...  It  is 
the  foundation  of  Ameri- 
can Government. 


Conditions  After  the  Revolution 

On  October  19th,  1781,  at  Yorktown, 
Cornwallis  surrendered  to  the  combined 
American  and  French  forces.  This 
battle  ended  the  American  Revolution 
for  Independence.  The  long  struggle 
with  England  had  been  fought,  and  suc- 
cessfully concluded.  The  Thirteen 
Original  States  faced  an  independent 
future  in  much  the 
same  condition  as 
these  new  countries 
just  mentioned. 

While  the  war 
was  on,  economic 
conditions  had  be- 
come greatly  de- 
moralized. Finances 
had  been  neglected. 
Armies  had  marched 
back  and  forth  from 
New  England  to  the 
Carolinas  leaving 
destruction  behind. 
Paper  money '  had 
been  recklessly  is- 
sued until  the  Col- 
onists looked  upon  a 
piece  of  Continental 
money  in  much  the 
same  way  that  Au- 
strians  and  Rus- 
sians, since  the  World  War,  have  looked 
upon  kronen  and  rubles.  "Not  worth 
a  continental"  is  still  a  saying  in  cur- 
rent use,  which  has  come  down  from 
those  early  revolutionary  days  when 
paper  money  was  so  plentifully  printed. 
Many  of  the  colonies  and  thousands 
of  the  colonists  were  badly  in  debt. 
Prices  were  high,  life  was  disorganized, 
everything  was  in  confusion,  as  the  new 
nation  of  America  began  its  independ- 
ent     career.       Troubles      immediately 


47 


48 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


THE  SURRENDER  OF  CORNWALLIS,  at  York- 
town,  October,  1781,  successfully  ended  the  struggle 
for  American  Independence.  The  following  six  years 
mark  the   most  critical   period    in   American   history. 


On  May  25,  1787,  the  Constitutional  Convention  met 
in  THIS  ROOM  in  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia, 
to  create  and  organize  a  National  Union.  George 
Washington  presided  over  the  Convention.  Finally 
the  Constitution  was  written.     .     .     . 


The  original  manuscripts  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence and  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
are  in  the  custody  of  the  LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS. 


blocked  its  path.  Riots  broke  out 
in  several  parts  of  the  country. 
Soldiers  and  officers,  paid  in 
depreciated  paper  money,  were 
in  bad  financial  straits  and  clam- 
ored for  assistance.  Individual 
states  quarrelled  with  each  other. 
The  fires  of  sectional  jealousy 
and  antagonism,  which  had  here- 
tofore been  kept  under  control 
through  the  stress  of  war,  now 
that  it  was  over,  burst  into  flame. 
In  despair,  George  Washington 
said  of  the  situation:  "We  act 
like  one  nation  to-day  and  thir- 
teen to-morrow." 

Many  Defects 

The  Government,  at  this  time, 
and  during  the  latter  years  of  the 
war,  consisted  of  a  Continental 
Congress  made  up  of  delegates 
from  the  Original  Thirteen 
States.  This  Congress  operated 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Ar- 
ticles of  Confederation,  a  war 
constitution,  adopted  on  Novem- 
ber 15th,  1777.  Under  these 
Articles,  in  spite  of  their  many 
defects,  the  States  managed  to 
stick  together  in  their  long 
struggle  against  the  mother 
country. 

But  for  peace  purposes  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  proved 
impossible.  The  Continental  Con- 
gress had  little  power.  It  had 
no  power  to  collect  taxes.  The 
Government  did  not  have  an  ex- 
ecutive head — a  President.  The 
delegates  were  paid  their  salaries 
by  individual  states.  They  were 
elected  for  one  year  only.  Con- 
gress lacked  power,  was  unable 
to  carry  out  its  decisions,  and 
soon  fell  into  disrepute. 

This  has  been  called  the  criti- 
cal period  of  American  history; 
critical  because  the  forces  of  dis- 
union seemed  to  be  getting  the 


THE      CONSTITUTION      OF      THE      UNITED      STATES 


49 


upper  hand.  America  needed  a 
strong  national  state  to  bring 
law,  order  and  union  out  of  the 
existing  chaos. 

Discouragements  at  First 

George  Washington,  James 
Madison,  Alexander  Hamilton, 
Benjamin  Franklin,  and  others, 
realized  the  danger.  They  urged 
that  action  be  taken.  Virginia, 
taking  the  lead,  sent  an  invita- 
tion to  the  other  states  to  meet 
with  her  to  discuss  the  situation. 
Only  five  states  responded.  The 
delegates  met  at  Annapolis  in 
1786,  but  little  progress  was 
made. 

Although  very  much  discour- 
aged and  disappointed  at  the 
meager  results,  these  leaders  per- 
sisted in  their  efforts.  Through 
their  influence  the  Continental 
Congress  then  called  a  Constitu- 
tional Convention,  made  up  of 
delegates  representing  the  states. 
This  Convention  met  in  Phila- 
delphia on  May  25th,  1787. 

The  delegates  to  this  Consti- 
tutional Convention  were  men 
experienced  in  public  affairs, 
trained  in  law  and  practical  poli- 
tics, and  well  read.  Many  had 
been  active  in  state  government 
and  had  already  held  high  ex- 
ecutive or  judicial  positions. 
George  Washington  was  elected 
President  of  this  Convention  and 
presided  over  its  meetings. 

Birth  of  the  Constitution 

The  Convention  faced  many 
problems,  but  the  fundamental 
one  was  to  create  and  to  organize 
a  National  Union,  and  to  do  this 
in  spite  of  the  jarring  jealousies 
between  individual  states,  and 
their  general  fears  of  a  strong 
central  government. 

Many  views  regarding  the 
form  which  the  new  government 


But  it  was  necessary  to  have  the  written 
Constitution  approved  by  the  Delegates  to  the 
Constitutional  Convention,  and,  finally,  have  each 
state  ratify  the  work  of  the  Delegates.  After  five 
months  of  debate  all  this  was  done.  America 
owes  much  to  THESE  FOUR  MEN  and  the  others 
who  were  chiefly  responsible  for  this  great  achieve- 
ment.— (1)  George  Washington,  (2)  James  Madison, 
(3)   Alexander  Hamilton  and   (4)   Benjamin  Franklin. 


50 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


^^IBL:^'  '^^ 

1  ' T^Bf 

H^irifipl 

HS^ij^^^ 

iHi 

When  the  Constitution  was  ratified  by  the  Dele- 
gates, there  was  great  rejoicing.  In  New  York  City 
the  celebration  took  the  form  of  A  MONSTER 
PARADE.  Alexander  Hamilton,  whose  name  appears 
on  the  float,  represented  New  York  State  at  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention.     .     .     . 


The  United  States  Government  was  born  on  the 
30th  of  April,  1789,  when  GEORGE  WASHINGTON 
TOOK   THE   OATH    OF  OFFICE   as  our  first   Presi- 


dent. THIS  STATUE  OF  WASHINGTON,  in  front 
of  the  old  Sub-treasury,  New  York  City,  marks  the 
spot  where  Washington  was  inaugurated. 


should  take  were  presented. 
Several  plans  were  outlined  in 
detail  by  state  delegations.  The 
Constitutional  Convention  sat 
from  May  until  September,  and 
thoroughly  discussed  and  de- 
bated these  plans  and  sugges- 
tions. The  new  Constitution  for 
The  United  States  of  America 
was  at  last  written  and  finally 
accepted  and  signed  by  the  dele- 
gates on  September  17th,  1787. 

Its  Adoption  by  the  States 

Adoption  by  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention,  however,  did 
not  put  the  new  government 
into  actual  operation.  Nine 
of  the  thirteen  states,  according 
to  the  agreement  of  the  dele- 
gates, had  first  to  ratify  the 
work  of  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention. The  proposed  constitu- 
tion was  submitted  to  the  vote 
of  state  conventions  made  up  of 
special  delegates. 

A  hot  campaign  followed. 
Many  arguments  were  raised 
against  the  adoption  of  the  new 
Constitution.  Many  even  went 
so  far  as  to  denounce  it.  Wash- 
ington, Franklin,  Hamilton, 
Madison,  Jay,  Morris,  and  the 
other  leaders  of  the  day,  stood 
firm  and  urged  its  acceptance. 

The  First  President 

This  final  fight  was  won  at  last. 
The  Constitution  was  ratified  by 
the  required  number  of  states. 
The  new  government  was  born.  ■ 
On  the  30th  of  April,  1789, 
George  Washington  took  the 
oath  of  office  as  the  first  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  of 
America,  on  the  balcony  of  Fed- 
eral Hall,  which  stood  at  the  cor- 
ner of  Nassau  and  Wall  Streets 
in  New  York  City. 


THE      CONSTITUTION      OF      THE      UNITED      STATES 


51 


Read  It 

This  Constitution,  which  made  the 
American  people  a  nation,  is  the  oldest 
written  constitution  or  complete  instru- 
ment of  government  in  actual  use.  It  is 
also  the  briefest  and  simplest.  There 
is  not  an  unnecessary  word  in  it.  With 
the  illustrations,  it  does  not  fill  over 
twenty  pages  of  this  book  and  takes  but 
little  more  than  the  same  number  of 
minutes  to  read.     Read  it! 

Gladstone,  the  great  English  states- 
man, thought  this  written  instrument  of 
government  to  be  "  the  most  wonderful 
work  ever  struck  off  at  a  given  time  by 
the  brain  and  purpose  of  man."  His- 
torians admit  that  it  was  the  most  demo- 
cratic achievement  of  all  history  up  to 
that  time.  It  marks  a  milestone  on  the 
road  to  popular  government  and  has  been 


a  beacon  light  for  new  nations.  Above 
all,  the  Constitution  has  worked  and 
stood  the  test  of  time. 

It  was  written  to  meet  the  needs  of  a 
little  over  three  million  white  people, 
largely  rural,  living  in  a  country  in  which 
only  about  one  hundred  thousand  square 
miles  were  inhabited  and  which  con- 
tained few  rich  and  hardly  any  poor. 
The  Constitution  is  now  being  applied 
to  3,743,448  square  miles  of  territory, 
including  outlying  possessions ;  to  vastly 
different  economic  and  social  conditions, 
and  to  over  one  hundred  and  seventeen 
million  men,  women  and  children. 

The  United  States,  under  the  form  of 
government  outlined  in  its  Constitution, 
has  grown  to  be  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful, most  prosperous,  and  most  stable 
governments  in  the  world! 


V  By    .. 


• 


\°^-    \     MINN. 


JMAINEj 


o-O 


\VTf 


V^ro. 


S.   DAK. 


WIS. 


MICH. 


L"o]yi  St  aV-At- V  ILL.  r'^'^UpiGkNAr'^^^ 

ifO'-O.  r        KANS.  MO.     7         /-^*^    '^.rilXTATE-- 

— — ^        mj    C 

TENN 


THE  TERRITORIAL  GROWTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
The  Constitution  was  written  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  little  over  three 
million  white  people — living  in  a  country  in  which  only  about  one  hundred 
thousand  square  miles  were  inhabited.  It  is  now  being  applied  to  3,743,448 
square  miles  of  territory  and  to  117,859,358  men,  women  and  children. 


CONTINENTAL  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  SHOAVINQ  GEOGRAPHIC  DIVISIONS 
(AREA:  2,974,000  SQUARE  MILES) 


The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America 

« 

The  Constitution  originally  consisted  of  a  Preamble  and  seven  Articles,  and 
in  that  form  was  "  Done  in  Convention  by  the  Unanimous  Consent  of  the  States 
present  the  Seventeenth  Day  of  September  in  the  Year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  Eighty  seven  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of 
America  the  Twelfth."  The  Constitution  was  declared  in  effect  on  the  first 
Wednesday  in  March,  1789.  The  signers  of  the  original  Constitution,  by  virtue  of 
their  membership  in  Congress,  were: 

Go.  WASHINGTON,  President  and  deputy  from  Virginia.  New  Hampshire — John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Gilman.  Massachusetts — Nathaniel  Gorham,  Rufus  King.  Connecticut — Wm.  Saml. 
Johnson,  Roger  Sherman.  New  York — Alexander  Hamilton.  New  Jersey — Wil.  Livingston,  David 
Brearley,  Wm.  Patterson,  Jona.  Dayton.  Pennsylvania — B.  Franklin,  Robt.  Morris,  Thos.  Fitz- 
simons,  James  Wilson,  Thomas  Mifflin,  Geo.  Clymer,  Jared  Ingersoll,  Gouv.  Morris.  Delaware — 
Geo.  Read,  John  Dickinson,  Jaco.  Broom,  Gunning  Bedford  Jun.,  Richard  Bassett.  Maryland — 
James  McHenry,  Dan.  Carroll,  Dan.  Jenifer,  of  St.  Thos.  Virginia — John  Blair,  James  Madison,  Jr. 
North  Carolina — Wm.  Blount,  Hu.  Williamson,  Richd.  Dobbs  Speight.  South  Carolina — J.  Rut- 
ledge,  Charles  Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney,  Pierce  Butler.  Georg'ia — William  Few, 
Abr.  Baldwin.     Attest:    William  Jackson,  Secretary. 

The  Constitution  was  ratified  by  the  Thirteen  Original  States  in  the  follow- 
ing order: 


Delaware,  December  7,  1787,  unanimously. 
Pennsylvania,  December  12,  1787,  vote  46  to  23. 
New  Jersey,  December  18,  1787,  unanimously. 
Georgia,  January  2,  1788,  unanimously. 
Connecticut,  January  9,  1788,  vote  128  to  40. 
Massachusetts,  February  6,  1788,  vote  187  to  168. 
Maryland,  April  28,  1788,  vote  63  to  12. 


South  Carolina,  May  23,  1788,  vote  149  to  7i. 

New  Hampshire,  June  21,  1788,  vote  57  to  46. 

Virginia,  June  25,  1788,  vote  89  to  79. 

New  York,  July  26,  1788,  vote  30  to  28. 

North  Carolina,  November  21,  1789,  vote  193  to  75. 

Rhode  Island,  May  29,  1790.  vote  34  to  32. 


52 


The  Preamble  to  the  Constitution 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect  Union, 
establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defence,  pro- 
mote the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our 
posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

Article  I.     Legislative  Department 


THE  CAPITOL  AT  WASHINGTON,  D.  C.     HERE  CONGRESS,  COMPOSED  OF  THE  SENATE    AND    THE  HOUSE 

OF  REPRESENTATIVES,  MEETS 

SECTION  1. — Legislative  Powers  of  Congress 

Congress 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted    shall   be   vested   in   a   Congress   of   the 
United  States,  which  shall  consist  o£  a  Senate  and  a  House  o£  Representatives. 

The  term  of  each  Congress  is  two  years.     It  assembles  on  the  first  Monday  in  December. 


SECTION  2.— House  of  Representatives 
Representatives:  How  Chosen 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be 
composed  of  inembers  chosen  every  second 
year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and 
the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  quali- 
fications requisite  for  electors  of  the*  most 
numerous    branch    of    the    State    Legislature. 

The  Sixty-seventh  Congress  has  435  members  in  the 
House.  The  number  of  congressmen  changes  with  each 
census. 


Qualifications  of  a  Representative 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 


THE    HOUSE    OF    REPRESENTATIVES 

".The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of 
members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the 
several  states," — Par,  1,  Sec.  2. 


53 


54 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


UNITED  STATES  CENSUS   OFFICIALS 

The  number  of  Representatives  from  each  state  is 
determined  by  the  population  of  each  state,  as  shown 
by  the  census. — I'ar.  3,  Sec.  2. 


FREDERICK    H.   GILLETT,   SPEAKER   OF 
THE    HOUSE    SINCE    1^19 
"  The    House    of    Representatives    shall    choose    their 
speaker  and   other   officers." — Par.  5,  Sec.  2 


Representatives  and  Direct  Taxes 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be 
apportioned  among  the  several  States  which 
may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according 
to  their  respective  numbers/  which  shall  be 
determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number 
of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  ser- 
vice for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians 
not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.^ 
The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within 
three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  and  within  every 
subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner 
as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of 
Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for 
every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall 
have  at  least  one  representative;  and  until 
such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of 
New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose 
three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and 
Providence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five. 
New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsyl- 
vania eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Vir- 
ginia ten.  North  Carolina  five.  South  Carolina 
five,  and  Georgia  three. 

'The  appwrtionment  under  the  census  of  1910  is  one  rep)- 
resentative  for  about  240,000  persons. 

2The  word  "p>ersons"  refers  to  slaves.  This  paragraph 
has  been  amended  (Amendments  XIII  and  XIV)  and  is 
no  longer  in  force. 

Vacancies  to  be  Filled 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  represen- 
tation from  any  State,  the  Executive  authority 
thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election^  to  fill 
such  vacancies. 

'Call  a  special  election. 

Powers  of    Choosing  Officers,  and  of 
Impeachment 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall 
choose  their  Speaker  and  other  officers;  and 
shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 


THE    SENATE    CHAMBER 
"  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of 
two   Senators   from    each   state." — Par.  1,  Sec.  3. 


SECTION  3.— The  Senate 

Senators:  How  and  by  Whom  Chosen 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  composed  of  two  Senators  from  each  State, 
chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six 
Years ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  Vote.* 

■i Senators  are  now  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people. 
See  Amendment  XVII. 

Senators:  How  Classified 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assem- 
bled in  Consequence  of  the  first  Election,  they 
shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into 
three  Classes.    The  Seats  of  the  Senators  of 


THE      CONSTITUTION— ARTICLE      I 


55 


the  first  Class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  Ex- 
piration of  the  second  Year,  of  the  second 
Class  at  the  Expiration  of  the  fourth  Year, 
and  of  the  third  Class  at  the  Expiration  of 
the  sixth  Year,  so  that  one-third  may  be 
chosen  every  second  Year;  and  if  Vacancies 
happen  by  Resignation,  or  otherwise,  during 
the  Recess  of  the  Legislature  of  any  State, 
the  Executive  thereof  may  make  temporary 
Appointments  until  the  next  Meeting  of  the 
Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  Va- 
cancies.i 

'A  vacancy  now  is  filled  by  the  Governor  of  the  State 
appointing  a  new  Senator,  or  calling  a  special  election. 
See  Amendment  XVII. 

Qualifications  of  a  Senator 

3.  No  Person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  Age  of  thirty  Years, 
and  been  nine  Years  a  Citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be 
an  Inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall 
be  chosen. 

President  of  the  Senate 

4.  The  Vice  President  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  President  of  the  Senate,  but 
shall  have  no  Vote,  unless  they  be  equally 
divided. 

President  pro  tenXi  and  other  Officers 
of  the  Senate — How  Chosen 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  Offi- 
cers, and  also  a  President  pro  tempore,^  in  the 
Absence  of  the  Vice  President,  or  when  he 
shall  exercise  the  Office  of  President  of  the 
United  States. 

2For  the  time  being. 

Power  to  Try  Impeachment 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  Power 
to  try  all  Impeachments.  When  sitting  for 
that  Purpose,  they  shall  be  on  Oath  or  Affir- 
mation. When  the  President  of  the  United 
States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  pre- 
side: And  no  Person  shall  be  convicted  with- 
out the  Concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the 
Members  present. 

Sentence,  in  Cases  of  Impeachment 

7.  Judgment  in  Cases  of  Impeachment 
shall  not  extend  further  than  to  removal  from 
Office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy 
any  Office  of  honor,  Trust  or  Profit  under 
the  United  States:  but  the  Party  convicted 
shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to 
Indictment,  Trial,  Judgment  and  Pimishment, 
according  to  Law. 


tSS'  Tot*  for  «acl 


UNITED  STATES  SENATOB 


HAEEY  0.  WALKER Democratic 


JAMES  W.  WADSWORTH,  JR RepubUcan 


JACOB   PANKEN Socialist 


ELLA  A.  BOOLE Prohibition 


HARRY  CARLSON Social  Labor 


ROSE  SCHNEIDERMAN Farmer-Labot 


NEW  YORK  CANDIDATES— U.  S.  SENATE 

Senators  are  now  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the  people. — 

See    Amendment    No.    XV'II    to    the    Constitution. 


THOMAS    R.    MARSHALL,    PRESIDENT    OF 

THE  SENATE,   1913-1921 
"  The    Vice    President    of    the    United   States    shall    be 
President   of   the  Senate." — Par.  4,  Sec.  3. 


JOHN     MARSHALL,    "THE    EXPOUNDER 

OF    THE    CONSTITUTION",    CHIEF 

JUSTICE,   1801-1835. 

"  When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the 

Chief   Justice   shall   preside." — Par.  6,  Sec.  3. 


56 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


SECTION  4.— Elections  and  Sessions 

Times,  etc.,  of  Holding  Elections 

1.  The  Times,  Places  and  Manner  of  hold- 
ing Elections  for  Senators  and  Representa- 
tives, shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by 
the  Legislature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may 
at  any  time  by  Law  make  or  alter  such  Regu- 
lations, except  as  to  the  Places  of  chusing 
Senators. 


When  Congress  Shall  Meet 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least 
once  in  every  Year,  and  such  Meeting  shall 
be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless 
they  shall  by  Law  appoint  a  different  Day. 


OPENING    OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 
CONGRESS,   1903 
"  The   Congress  shall  assemble  at  least   once  in   every 
year." — Par.   2,    Sec.   4, 


SECTION  5.— Government  and  Rules 


CALENDAR  OF  HOUSE  BILLS. 

SIXTY-SIXTH  CONGRESS. 


an  >  Mr   fohtMMi  I 


lit  lUbrr... 


To  pf^hil'it  iniautniiM  tot  ■  pfhod  ol  kntr  inn,  ■ 


Te  wohibii  (he  r«nlk(  el  Amiir  Uboran  laio  llw 

UDilMl  SIMM,  Ud  (cm  MIwi  (niriMM*. 

To  profcibii  itamlipkiMn  fof  ■  period  e(  lout  ycwa,  and 


REDUCED    FAC-SIMILE   OF    CALENDAR    OF 
HOUSE   BILLS  ON   IMMIGRATION,  SIXTY- 
SIXTH    CONGRESS 

Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings. 
— I'ar.    2,    Sec.    5. 


SIXTY-SEVENTH  CONORESS,  SECOND  SESSION'. 


REDUCED  FACSIMILE,  COVER  PAGE, 
CONGRESSIONAL    RECORD 
"  Each   house   shall   keep   a   journal   of   its  proceedings 
and  from  time  to  time  publish  the  same  except  in  such 
parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy." — Par. 
3.    Sec.    5. 


Membership — Quorum,  Etc. 

1.  Each  House  shall  be  the  Judge  of  the 
Elections,  Returns  and  Qualifications  of  its 
own  Members,  and  a  Majority  of  each  shall 
constitute  a  Quorum^  to  do  Business;  but  a 
smaller  Number  may  adjourn  from  day  to 
day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  absent  Members,  in  such  Man- 
ner, and  under  such  Penalties  as  each  House 
may  provide. 

'The  number  authorized  to  do  business.  In  this  case, 
one  more  than  half  the  total  number  of  members. 


Rules  of  Proceedings- 
Punish 


-Powers  to 


2.  Each  House  may  determine  the  Rules 
of  its  Proceedings;-  punish  its  Members  for 
disorderly  Behaviour,  and,  with  the  Concur- 
rence of  two-thirds,  expel  a  Member. 

'Rules  for  the  conduct  of  business. 

Journal  of  Proceedings 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  Journal  of  its 
Proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  publish 
the  same,  excepting  such  Parts  as  may  in  their 
Judgment  require  Secrecy;^  and  the  Yeas  and 
Nays  of  the  Members  of  either  House  on  any 
question  shall,  at  the  Desire  of  one-fifth  of 
those  Present,  be  entered  on  the  Journal. 

'For  example:  news  in  time  of  war. 

Adjournment  of  Congress 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  Session  of 
Congress,  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  the 
other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor 
to  any  other  Place  than  that  in  which  the  two 
Houses  shall  be  sitting. 


THE      CONSTITUTION— ARTICLE       I 


57 


SECTION  6. — ^Privileges  and  Restrictions  of  Members 

Pay  and  Privileges  of  Members 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall 
receive  a  compensation  for  their  services,^  to 
be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  o£  the 
Treasury  o£  the  United  States.  They  shall  in 
all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  and  breach 
of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during 
their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respec- 
tive Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning 
from  the  same ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate 
in  either  House  they  shall  not  be  questioned 
in  any  other  place. 

iSeventy-five  hundred  dollars  a  year  and  twenty  cents 
for  every  mile  of  travel  each  way  from  their  homes  at  each 
annual  session. 


Prohibitions  on  Members 

2.  No  Senator  or  Repres^tative  shall,  dur- 
ing the  time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  ap- 
pointed to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been 
created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have 
been  increased,  during  such  time;  and  no  per- 
son holding  any  office  under  the  United  States 
shall  be  a  member  of  either  House  during  his 
continuance  in  office. 


DANIEL    WEBSTER    "DEFENDER    OF   THE 
'  CONSTITUTION,"    SPEAKING    IN 
THE    SENATE 

For  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house  a  Senator  or 
Representative  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
place. — Par.   2,   Sec.   6. 


SECTION  7. — Method  of  Passing  Laws 


Revenue  Bills 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  origin- 
ate in  the  House  of  Representatives;  but  the 
Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amend- 
ments as  on  other  bills.- 

2A  bill  is  a  written  statement  or  proposal  offered  to  be 
made  into  law. 

How  Bills  Become  Laws 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate 
shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  if  he 
approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall 
return  it  with  his  objections  to  that  House  in 
which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter 
the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and 
proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  recon- 
sideration two  thirds  of  that  House  shall 
agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together 
with  the  objections,  to  the  other  House,  by 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and 
if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that  House,  it 
shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases 
the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined 
by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall 
be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  House  re- 


S.  4528. 


LV  TnE  SENATE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


A  BILL 

To  pn>vi>l«  fnr  th*  tcmpnnrv  xuspensinn  o(  tmmi^tion.  ^od  for 
other  purposes. 
Bf  il  rniidcd  by  fhr  fi«nfile  and  B«HSe  of  Rfprtfrnla' 
.rJ  of  Ihf  t/wiW  Statt*  ol  4-n^riVg  in  Om<jrr$.t  njm^hfrd.   _ 


H.  R7. 


IN  THE-HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 


A  BILL 

:rMle  a  Department  ot  Education,  to  aothoriie  apptopria* 
tions  (or  the  cooduct  ot  said  depwUneat,  to  Mthonie  tha 
ftppmpri&tioQ  of  money  to  t^acoangt  the  Stales  id  the  pro- 
mouon  and  support  o(  edBCAtion.-atod  (or  other  puiposei. 

Be  it  madfd  by  ihe  SenaU  and  BovM  of  JUprtaenta- 
tiv*.i  of  Ike  VniUd  Slates  of  A>ntru:a  %n  Conqresa  oMembUd^ 


FAC-SIMILES   OF     (1)     SENATE     IMM 
TION    BILL,   AND    (2)    HOUSE   BILL 
CREATE    A    DEPARTMENT    OF 
EDUCATION" 

All    bills    for    raising    revenue    shall    originate 
House  of  Representatives. — Par.    1,   Sec.   7. 


IGRA- 
"TO 


in    the 


58 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


PRESIDENT  HARDING  SIGNING  A  BILL 
"  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become 
a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States.  .  .  .  It  be  approve  be  shall  sign  it." — 
Par.   2,    Sec.    7. 


spectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned 
by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented 
to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  man- 
ner as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress 
by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in 
which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 


Resolutions,  etc. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which 
the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on 
a  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  and, 
before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be 
approved  by  him,  or,  being  disapproved  by 
him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in 
the  case  of  a  bill. 


SECTION  8. — Powers  Granted  to  Congress 


ALIENS     RENOUNCING     ALLEGIANCE    TO 

THEIR   FORMER   COUNTRIES   AND 

RULERS 

"  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  establish  an  uniform 
rule    of    naturalization." — Par.    4,    Sec.    6. 


UNITED  STATES  MARINE  GUARDING  MAIL 
"  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  establish  post- 
oSSces." — Par.    7,    Sec.    8. 


The  Congress  Shall  Have  Power: 

To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,^  imposts. 
and  excises,'^  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide 
for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare 
of  the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts, 
and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the 
United  States; 

'Duties:  money  paid  on  goods  brought  into  this  country. 
^Imposts   and   excises:   money   paid    on  certain   goods 
made  in  this  country. 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the 
United  States; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations, 
and  among  the  several  States,  and  with  the 
Indian  tribes;" 

To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturaliza- 
tion,  and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of 
bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States; 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof, 
and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of 
weights  and  measures; 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counter- 
feiting the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the 
United  States; 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and 
useful  arts,  by  securing,  for  limited  times,  to 
authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to 
their  respective  writings  and  discoveries; 


THE      CONSTITUTION— ARTICLE      I 


59 


To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Su- 
preme Court; 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies 
committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offenses 
against   the   law  of  nations; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque 
and  reprisal,^  and  make  rules  concerning  cap- 
tures on  land  and  water; 

'Letters  granted  by  the  government  to  private  citizens  in 
time  of  war  authorizing  them,  under  certain  conditions,  to 
capture  the  ships  of  the  enemy. 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appro- 
priation of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a 
longer  term  than  two  years; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regu- 
lation of  the  land  and  naval  forces; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia'^  to 
execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  in- 
surrections  and  repel   invasions. 

^Militia:  citizen  soldiers. 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  dis- 
ciplining the  militia,  and  for  governing  such 
part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the 
States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the 
officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the 
militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed 
by  Congress; 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases 
whatsoever  over  such  district  (not  exceeding 
ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  par- 
ticular States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress, 
become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,^  and  to  exercise  like  authority 
over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of 
the  Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the 
same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  maga- 
zines, arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  needful 
buildings ; — ^And 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary 
and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the 
foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 
thereof. 

^The  District  of  Columbia. 


SOLDIERS    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

ARMY 

"  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  raise  and  support 
Armies."— Par.  12,  Sec.  8. 

.  .  .  "  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia." — 
Par     IS,    Sec.    8. 

..."  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  dis- 
ciplining   the    militia." — Par.    16,    Sec.    8. 


THE     AMERICAN     NAVY    SALUTES     ITS 

FORMER   COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF,   THE 

LATE    PRESIDENT    ROOSEVELT 

"  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  provide  and  main- 
tain a  Navy." — Par.   13,  Sec.  8. 


SECTION  9.— Powers  Denied  to  Congress 
Migration  or  Importation 


1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such 
persons  as  any  of  the  States  now  existing 
shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  pro- 


hibited by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax 
or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation, 
not  exceeding  ten   dollars   for   each  person.* 


■"An  immigrant  to  the  United  States  must  pay  a  tax  of  eight  dollars  ($8) 


60 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


U.   S.   WAR    DETENTION   CAMP 

"  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not 
be  suspended  unless  when  in  cases  .  .  .  the  public 
safety  may  require  it."— Par.   2,   Sec.    9. 


MISSISSIPPI    RIVER    STEAMERS 
"  Vessels   bound   to,   or   from,   one   State,   shall   not   be 
obliged   to    enter,    clear,    or   pay    duties   in    another." — 
Par.  6,  Sec.  9. 


UNITED  STATES  TREASURY 

"  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury  but  in 
consequence  of  appropriations  made  by  law." — Par.  7, 
Sec  9. 


Habeas  Corpus 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  cor- 
pus^ shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when  in 
cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public 
safety  may  require  it. 

'An  official  document  requiring  an  accused  person  who 
is  detained  awaiting  trial  to  be  brought  into  court  to  in- 
quire whether  he  may  be  legally  held. 

Bills  of  Attainder 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder-  or  ex  post  facto 
law^  shall  be  passed. 

-A  special  legislative  act  by  which  a  person  may  be 
condemned  to  death  or  to  outlawry  or  banishment  without 
the  opportunity  of  defending  himself  which  he  would  have  in 
a  court  of  law. 

'^A  law  relating  to  the  punishment  of  acts  committed 
before  the  law  was  passed. 

Taxes,  How  Apportioned 

4.  No  capitation*  or  other  direct  tax  shall 

be   laid,   unless   in   proportion   to   the   census 

or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be 

taken. 

■"A  tax  levied  per  head. ..In  1913  the  XVI  Amendment 
gave  Congress  power  to  tax  incomes. 

No  Export  Duty 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles 
exported  from  any  State. 

No  Commercial  Preference 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any 
regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the 
ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another;  nor 
shall  vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State, 
be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in 
another. 

Money:  How  Drawn  from  Treasury 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treas- 
ury, but  in  consequence  of  appropriations 
made  by  law;  and  a  regular  statement  and 
account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of 
all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time 
to   time. 

No  Title  of  Nobility 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by 
the  United  States;  and  no  person  holding  any 
office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall 
without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept 
of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of 
any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince, 
or  foreign  state. 


SECTION  10.— Powers  Denied  to  the  States 


Absolute  Prohibitions 

1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty, 
alliance,  or  confederation;  grant  letters  of 
marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills 


of  credit;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver 
coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any 
bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law 
impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant 
any  title  of  nobility. 


THE      CONSTITUTION  — ARTICLE       II 


61 


Conditional  Prohibitions 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on 
imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection 
laws;  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and 
imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or 
exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  Treasury 
of  the  United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall 
be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the 
Congress. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Con- 
gress, lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,'^  keep  troops^ 
or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into 
any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State, 
or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war, 
unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent 
danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

iLay  any  duty  on  shipping  coming  within  their  borders. 
20ther  than  its  militia. 


EXPORTING  RAILS  FROM  CLEVELAND 
TO  CANADA 

"  No  state  shall,  -without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay 
any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except 
what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  ior  executing  its 
inspection  laws." — Par.  2,  Sec.  2, 


Article  II.    Executive  Department 
SECTION  1.— President  and  Vice-President 
President:  His  Term  of  Office 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in 
a  President  of  the  United  States  of  America. 
He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of 
four  years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent, chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected, 
as  follows: 


President:  How  Chosen 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner 
as  the  Legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  num- 
ber of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number 
of  senators  and  representatives  to  which  the 
State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress:  but 
no  senator  or  representative,  or  person  hold- 
ing an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the 
United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 
[The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respec- 
tive States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two  per- 
sons, of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves. 
And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons 
voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for 
each;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify 
and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
president  of  the  Senate.  The  president  of 
the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 
coimted.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if 
such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  num- 
ber  of   electors   appointed;   and   if   there   be 


THE    WHITE    HOUSE— THE    OFFICIAL 

HOME    OF    THE    PRESIDENT    OF 

THE    UNITED   STATES 


COUNTING    THE    PRESIDENTIAL 
ELECTORAL   VOTE 

"  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of 
the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  open  all 
the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted." — 
Par.  2,  Sec.  1. 


62 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


THE  PRESIDENT  AND  MRS.  HARDING, 
VICE  PRESIDENT  AND  MRS.  COOLIDGE 
Warren  Gamaliel  Harding  was  born  November  2,  186S, 
near  Blooming  Grove,  Morrow  County,  Ohio.  Calvin 
Coolidge  was  born  July  4,  1872.  at  Plymouth,  Vt.  .  .  . 
"  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen  .  .  .  shall  be 
eligible  to  the  office  of  President  .  .  .  or  Vice  Presi- 
dent."— Par.  4,   Sec.  ,1. 


VICE  PRESIDENTS  WHO  BECAME 
PRESIDENTS 
"In  case  of  .  .  .  the  death  of  the  President  .  .  .  the  same 
shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President." — Par.  5.  Sec.  1, 
Andrew  Johnson  became  President  on  the  death  of 
Abraham  Lincoln;  Chester  Alan  Arthur,  on  the  death  of 
James  Abram  Garfield:  Theodore  Roosevelt,  on  the 
death   of    William  McKinley. 


PRESIDENTIAL  YACHT,  THE  MAYFLOWER 

The  salary  of  the  President  is  now  $75,000  a  year.  In 
addition,  he  receives  $25,000  for  traveling  expenses, 
the  use  of  "  The  MayBower  ",  The  White  House,  etc. — 
Par,  6,  Sec.  1. 


more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and 
have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately 
choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President; 
and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from 
the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  house 
shall,  in  like  manner,  choose  the  President. 
But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall 
be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from 
each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for 
this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or 
members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and 
a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary 
to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  Choice 
of  the  President,  the  Person  having  the  great- 
est Number  of  Votes  of  the  Electors  shall  be 
the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  re- 
main two  or  more  who  have  equal  Votes,  the 
Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  Ballot  the 
Vice-President.i] 

iThis  paragraph   in  brackets  has  been   superseded  by 
Amendment  XII.  t-  , 

Electors  to  Vote  on  Same  Day 

3.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  Time 
of  choosing  the  Electors,  and  the  Day  on 
which  they  shall  give  their  Votes ;  which  Day 
shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United 
States. 

Qualification  of  President 

4.  No  Person  except  a  natural  born  Citi- 
zen, or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  at  the 
time  of  the  Adoption  of  this  Constitution, 
shall  be  eligible  to  the  Office  of  President; 
neither  shall  any  Person  be  eligible  to  that 
Office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  Age 
of  thirty-five  Years,  and  been  fourteen  Years 
a  Resident  within  the  United  States. 

In  Case  of  Death- 

5.  In  Case  of  the  Removal  of  the  President 
from  Office,  or  of  his  Death,  Resignation,  or 
Inability  to  discharge  the  Powers  and  Duties 
of  the  said  Office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on 
the  Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may  by 
Law  provide  for  the  Case  of  Removal,  Death, 
Resignation,  or  Inability,  both  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  Offi- 
cer shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  Offi- 
cer shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  Disability 
be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

President's  Compensation 

6.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  Times,  re- 
ceive for  his  Services,  a  Compensation,  which 
shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished 
during  the  Period  for  which  he  shall  have 


THE      CONSTITUTION  — ARTICLE       II 


63 


been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within 
that  Period  any  other  Emolument  from  the 
United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

His  Oath  of  Office 

7.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his 


affirmation : — "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  af- 
firm) that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office 
of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will 
to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect 
and   defend  the    Constitution   of  the    United 


office,    he    shall   take   the    following   oath    or      States. 


SECTION  2. — Powers  of  the  President 

Commander-in-Chief 

1.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States, 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the 
United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion, 
in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments,^  upon  any  subject 
relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective 
offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant 
reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the 
United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeach- 
ment. 

'There  are  ten  executive  departments;  each  has  a 
secretary.     Altogether  they  form  the  President's  Cabinet 


Treaty  Making  Power 

2,  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,'  to  make 
treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators 
present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and, 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  pub- 
lic ministers,  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Su- 
preme Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the 
United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not 
herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall 
be  established  by  law;  but  the  Congress  may 
by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President 
alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads 
of  departments. 

Power  to  Fill  Vacancies 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill 
up  all  vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the 
recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commis- 
sions which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their 
next  session. 


COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF 

"  The  President  shall  he  Commander-in-chief  of  the 
Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  Mil- 
itia  of  the  several  states." — Par.  1,  Sec.  2. 


FORMER   PRESIDENT  WILSON    DELIVER- 
ING A  MESSAGE  TO  CONGRESS 

"  The  President  shall   from  time   to   time,   give   to   the 
Congress    information    of    the    st^te    of    the    Union." — 

Par.  3,  Sec.  2,' 


SECTION  3.— Duties  of  the  President 


Message  to  Congress 

He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the 
Congress  Information  of  the  State  of  the 
Union,  and  recommend  to  their  Consideration 
such  Measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary 
and  expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  Oc- 
casions, convene  both  Houses,  or   either   of 


them,  and  in  Case  of  Disagreement  between 
them,  with  Respect  to  the  Time  of  Adjourn- 
ment, he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  Time  as 
he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive  Am- 
bassadors and  other  public  Ministers;  he  shall 
take  Care  that  the  Laws  be  faithfully  exe- 
cuted, and  shall  Commission  all  the  Officers 
of  the  United  States. 


64 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


SECTION  4.— Civil  Offices  Forfeited  for  Certain  Crimes 


Impeachment 

The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil 
Officers    of   the    United   States,   shall   be   re- 


moved from  Office  on  Impeachment  for,  and 
Conviction  of,  Treason,  Bribery,  or  other 
high   Crimes   and   Misdemeanors, 


Article  III.     Judicial  Department 
SECTION  1. — United  States  Courts — Supreme  and  Inferior 
Judicial  Powers 


The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and 
in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may 
from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.     The 


judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior 
courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  their  services  a  compensation  which  shall 
not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance 
in  office. 


SECTION  2. — ^Powers  and  Jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Courts 


,/,^«   ^^'^^ 


ft':^' 


SIGNATURES      TO      THE      "FOUR-POWER 

PACIFIC  TREATY" 
At   the   close   of   the    Conference    on    the   Limitation   of 
Armament,  a   treaty  was  signed  December  13,   1921,  by 
the    United  States,  England,  France   and  Japan   apply- 
ing  to   relations   in    the   Pacific. 

All  treaties  are  a  part  of  the  supreme  law  of  the 
United  States  and  stand  on  a  par  with  the  Constitution 
and  other  laws. — Par.  1,  Sec.  2. 


H^i  ■'[     Bft     i^''  1  i'Hjt--""  w  'VH ''  ^ 

■ttHKa^ii^^Hk^^RllilsK]^^           m^n^^ 

A    UNITED    STATES   COURT    IN    SESSION 
The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment, 
shall  be  by  jury." — Par.  3,  Sec.  2. 


The  Judicial  Power 

1.  The  judicial  Power  shall  extend  to  all 
Cases,  in  Law  and  Equity,  arising  under  this 
Constitution,  the  Laws  of  the  United  States, 
and  Treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made, 
under  their  Authority; — to  all  cases  affecting 
Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers  and  Con- 
suls;— to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime 
Jurisdiction; — to  Controversies  to  which  the 
United  States  shall  be  a  Party; — to  Contro- 
versies between  two  or  more  States; — be- 
tween a  State  and  Citizens  of  another  State; — 
between  Citizens  of  different  States; — between 
Citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  Lands 
under  Grants  of  different  States,  and  between 
a  State,  or  the  Citizens  thereof,  and  foreign 
States,   Citizens   or   Subjects. 

Original  Jurisdiction 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers,  and  consuls,  and  those  in 
which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all 
the  other  cases  before  mentioned  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both 
as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall 
make. 

Trial  by  Jury 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury;  and  such 
trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said 
crimes  shall  have  been  committed;  but  when 
not  committed  within  any  State  the  trial  shall 
be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress 
may  by  law  have  directed. 


THE      CONSTITUTION  — ARTICLE       IV 


65 


SECTION  3— -Treason:  Its  Nature  and  Punishment 

Treason  Defined 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall 
consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or 
in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them 
aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  con- 
victed o£  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on 
confession  in  open  court. 

Punishment  of  Treason 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  de- 
clare the  punishment  of  treason,  but  no  at- 
tainder of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of 
blood  or  forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of 
the  person  attainted.^ 

•Punishment  for  treason  shall  not  affect  anyone  but  the 
person  convicted. 


BENEDICT  ARNOLD  GIVING  INFORMATION 

TO    BRITISH    OFFICER    DURING 

REVOLUTIONARY  WAR 

See  Definition  of  Treason. — Par.  1,  Sec.  3. 


Article  IV.     Relations  of  the  States  and  Federal  Government 
SECTION  1.— Recognition  of  State  Authority 

Public  Acts  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each 


State  to  the  public  acts,  records    and  judicial 
proceedings  of  every  other  State.     And  the 


manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and  pro- 
ceedings shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect 
thereof. 


SECTION  2.— Laws  Regarding  Citizens  of  the  United  States 

Privileges  and  Immunities 

1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  en- 
titled to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of  citi- 
zens in  the  several  States. 

Fugitives  from  Justice 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with 
treason,  felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee 
from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State, 
shall  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority'^ 
of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered 
up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  juris- 
diction of  the  crime. 

2The  Governor  of  the  State. 

Fugitive  Slaves 

3.  No  person-^  held  to  service  or  labor  in 
one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping 
into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law 
or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 
service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on 
claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or 
labor  may  be  due. 

3"Person"  here  includes  a  slave.  This  provision  is  now 
superseded  by  the  Thirteenth  Amendment. 


OFFICERS    TAKING    "A    FUGITIVE    FROM 

JUSTICE"  BACK  TO  THE  STATE  WHERE 

HE   COMMITTED   THE   CRIME 

"  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or 
other  crime,  who  shall  Bee  from  justice,  and  be  found 
in  another  state,  shall,  ...  be  delivered  up.  .  .  .  " — 
Par.  2,  Sec.  2. 


66 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


SECTION  3.— New  States  and  Territories 


THE  CAPITOL  OF  THE  STATE  OF  ARIZONA 

ArJzona  was  the  last  State  to  be  admitted  to  the  Union 
(February  14,  1912)  "...  New  States  .  .  .  shall  be 
admitted  into  this   Union." — Par.    1,    Sec.   3. 


Admission  of  States 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the 
Congress  into  this  Union;  but  no  new  State 
shall  be  formed  or  erected  -within  the  juris- 
diction of  any  other  State;  nor  any  State  be 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States, 
or  parts  of  State,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as  well 
as  of  the  Congress. 

Territory  and  Property  of  the  United 
States 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dis- 
pose of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and  regu- 
lations respecting  the  territory  or  other  prop- 
erty belonging  to  the  United  States;  and 
nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 


SECTION  4. — Protection  Guaranteed  by  the  Federal  Government 

Protection  of  the  States  against   invasion;    and   on   application    of   the 

The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  Legislature,   or   of   the   Executive    (when   the 

State  in  this  Union  a  republican  form  of  gov-  Legislature  can  not  be  convened),  against  do- 

ernment,    and    shall    protect    each    of    them  mestic  violence. 


Article  V.     Power  and  Method  of  Amending  the  Constitution 


• — — — 

— — ■ 

'■"^^'"^~"— ' 

1   ..— .nw..->»M.             '    <  •<t..Mi.^«wwa  • 

t  ,1 .             1           ■      ■     ,                >...«,.»..«..«••. 

TT"" 

^<^1^  _.......««.»—.                          ..__,.... 

4^5^^^ 

■KTSSiTT^                   -^ 

AMENDING  THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE 
UNITED    STATES 

The  amendment  authorizing  the  taxing  of  incomes  was 
proposed  to  the  Legislatures  of  the  several  states  by 
the  Sixty-first  Congress  in  July,  1909,  and  was  declared 
to  have  been  ratified  in  a  proclamation  by  the  Secretary 
of  State,  February  2Sth,  1913. 

An  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  shall  be  valid  to 
all  intent.i  and  purposes  when  ratified  by  the  legislatures 
of  three-fourths  of    the  several  states. — Article   5. 


Constitution:  How  Amended 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both 
Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose 
amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds 
of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention 
for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either 
case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes, 
as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by 
the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  sev- 
eral States,  or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths 
thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  rati- 
fication may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress; 
provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be 
made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect 
the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  sec- 
tion of  the  first  article;  and  that  no  State, 
without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its 
equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 


THE      CONSTITUTION  — ARTICLE       VI 


67 


Article  VI.     General  Provisions 


Public  Debt 

1.  All  Debts  contracted  and  Engagements 
entered  into,  before  the  adoption  of  this  Con- 
stitution, shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the 
Confederation. 

Supremacy  of  Constitution 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  Laws  of  the 
United  States  which  shall  be  made  in  Pur- 
suance thereof;  and  all  Treaties  made,  or 
which  r.hall  be  made,  under  the  Authority  of 
the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  Law 
of  the  Land;  and  the  Judges  in  every  State 
shall  be  bound  thereby,  any  Thing  in  the  Con- 
stitution or  Laws  of  any  State  to  the  Con- 
trary notwithstanding. 

Official  Oath 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  be- 
fore mentioned,  and  the  Members  of  the  sev- 
eral State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and 
judicial  Officers,  both  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  boimd  by 
Oath  or  Affirmation,  to  support  this  Consti- 
tution; but  no  Religious  Test  shall  ever  be 
required  as  a  Qualification  to  any  Office  or 
public  Trust  under  the  United  States. 


.VV  V  ~V  ,/'-it!if^,*^u 


REDUCED    FAC-SfMILE    FIRST    PAGE   OF 
THE    CONSTITUTION 

"  This  Constitution,   .    .    .  shall  be  the  supreme  Law  of 
the  Land."— Far.  2,  Art.  6. 


SECRETARY     OF     NAVY,     EDWIN     DENBY, 
TAKING   OATH    OF   OFFICE 

"All  executive  and  judicial  officers  .  .  .  shall  be  bound 
by  Oath  or  Affirmation,  to  support  this  Constitution." — 
Par.  3,  Art.  6. 


of 


Article  VII.     Ratification  of  Constitution 

How  Ratified 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establishment 
this    Constitution   between   the    States   so  ratifying  the  same. 


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THE    SIGNERS    OF    THE    ORIGINAL    CONSTITUTION 

"  Done  in  Convention  by  the  Unanimous  Consent  of  the  States  Present  the  Seventeenth  Day  of 
September  in  the  Year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  Inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  of  America  the  Twelfth." 


68 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


Amendments  to  the  Constitution 

The  following  amendments  to  the  Constitution,  Articles  I.  to  X.,  inclusive,  were 
proposed  at  the  First  Session  of  the  First  Congress,  begun  and  held  at  the  City  of. 
New  York,  on  Wednesday,  March  4,  1789,  and  were  adopted  by  the  necessary  number 
of  States.  The  original  proposal  of  the  ten  amendments  was  preceded  by  this  pre- 
amble and  resolution: 

"  The  conventions  of  a  number  of  the  States  having,  at  the  time  of  their  adopting 
the  Constitution,  expressed  a  desire,  in  order  to  prevent  misconstruction  or  abuse  of 
its  powers,  that  further  declaratory  and  restrictive  clauses  should  be  added,  and  as 
extending  the  ground  of  public  confidence  in  the  Government  will  best  insure  the 
beneHcent  ends  of  its  institution; 

"RESOLVED,  By  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  in  congress  assembled,  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  concurring,  that  the 
following  articles  be  proposed  to  the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States,  as  amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States;  all  or  any  of  which  articles  when 
ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  said  Legislatures,  to  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  pur-' 
poses,  as  part  of  the  said  Constitution,  namely:  " 


(The  Ten  Amendments  Declared  in  Force,  December  15,  1791) 


THE    RIGHT   OF   FREE   SPEECH 

"  Congress  shall  make  no  law   .    .    .  abridging  the  free- 
dom of  speech." — Article   1,  Amendment. 


ARTICLE  I 

Religious      Establishment      Prohibited, 

Freedom  of   Speech,   of  the   Press, 

and  Right  to  Petition 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an 
establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the 
free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  free- 
dom of  speech  or  of  the  press,  or  the  right 
of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to 
petition  the  Government  for  a  redress  of 
grievances. 


"AN    AMERICAN'S    HOME,    HIS    CASTLE" 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons, 
bouses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches 
and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated. — Article  4,  Amend- 
ment. 


ARTICLE  II 

Right  to  Keep  and  Bear  Arms 

A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to 
the  security  p£  a  free  State,  the  right  of  the 
people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  in- 
fringed. 

ARTICLE  III 
No  Soldier  to  be  Quartered  in  Homes 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quar- 
tered in  any  house  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner,  nor  in  time  of  war  but  in  a  manner  to 
be  prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV 
Right  of  Search  and  Seizure 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their 
persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against 
unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not 
be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but 
upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or 
affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the 
place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things 
to  be  seized. 


THE      CONSTITUTION  — AMENDMENTS 


69 


ARTICLE  V 

Provisions    Concerning    Prosecution, 

Trial   and    Punishment.      Private 

Property  Not  to  Be  Taken 

Unless,  Etc. 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a 
capital  or  other  infamous  crime  unless  on  a 
presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury, 
except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  ser- 
vice, in  time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor 
shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same 
offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life 
or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  crim- 
inal case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor 
be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  with- 
out due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  prop- 
erty be  taken  for  t)ublic  use,  without  just 
compensation. 


ARTICLE  VI 

Right  to  Speedy  Trial,  Witness,  Etc. 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused 
shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public 
trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and 
district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been 
committed,  which  district  shall  have  been 
previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  in- 
formed of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusa- 
tion; to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 
against  him;  to  have  compulsory  process  for 
obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have 
the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 


ARTICLE  VII 

Right  of  Trial  by  Jury 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value 
in  controversy  shall  exceed  twenty  dollars, 
the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved, 
and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise 
re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States 
than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common 
law. 


ARTICLE  VIII 

Excessive    Bail    or    Fines    and    Cruel 

Punishments  Prohibited 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor 
excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual 
punishments  inflicted. 


COURT    AGENT    SERVING    WARRANT 

"  .  .  .  Nor  shall  any  person  .  .  .  be  deprived  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law." — Ar- 
ticle  S,   Amendment. 


TRIAL    BY    JURY 
"  The    right    of    trial    by    jury    shall    be    preserved." — 

Article    7,   Amendment. 


PRISONERS    IN    THE    PILLORY 


This  form  of  punishment  is  discontinued.    ..."  Nor 
cruel   and    unusual   punishments   indicted." — Article    8, 
Amendment, 


70 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


THE 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 


Adopted  November  6,  1894. 
as  ahendbd  and  in  pobce  january  1,  1922. 


ARTICLE  1. 
I    1.  Persons  not  to  be  disfranchised. 
^Trial  by  jury. 

flf  worship;  religious  liberty. 


A    STATE    CONSTITUTION 

Powers  not  given  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitu- 
tion, nor  prohibited  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the 
States  or  to  'the  people.- — Article    10,   Amendment. 


ARTICLE  IX 

Rule  of  Construction  o£  Constitution 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  o£ 
certain  rights,  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny 
or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X 
Rights  of  States  Under  Constitution 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United 
States  by  the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by 
it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  re- 
spectively, or  to  the  people. 


Additional  Amendments  to  the  Constitution 


JUDICIAL  BRANCH 

The  sdpreme  Court 
The  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States 

KiRht  .Uxx  int.'  .luMii.s 


UNITED  STATES 

CIRCIHT  COIRTS  OF 

APPEALS 


UNITED  STATES 
DISTRICT  COURTS 


VARIOUS  SPECIA  L 
COURTS 

Court  of  Claims  i.f  the  Ui'lleJ 
States,  \\asliiiigl..n,  D.  C. 

Uliilcd  Stiites  Court  of 
Custulns  .\|>(n;uli>. 

Courtof  A|>|>r:iIsof  lh« 
Dihti  H  t  of  Columbia. 
Supreme  Court  of  the 
Dislricl  of  Columbia. 

Feileral  Courts, 
Alaska  anil  Hawaii. 


United  Stale 
for  P< 


Dislriet  Court 
ru.  Rico. 


T''niteil  ."States  Disinit  Court 

f..r  The  Canal  Zone. 
fniUKl  .States  Court  for  China 


CHART  OF  JUDICIAL  BRANCH  OF  THE 
UNITED   STATES   GOVERNMENT, 

Article    11,    Amendment. 


PRESIDENTS   OF  THE    UNITED   STATES 

CHOSEN    BY  THE   HOUSE  OF 

REPRESENTATIVES 

CO  Thomas  Jefferson,  (2)  John  Quincy  Adams,  (3) 
Rutherford  Birchard  Hayes.  .  .  .  In  the  first  two  cases 
the  House  of  Representatives  chose  the  President.  In 
the  latter  case,  a  special  committee  decided  the  dispute 
over  electors. — Article    12,  Amendment. 


The  following  amendment  was  proposed  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Third  Congress  on  the  5th  day  of  March, 
1794,  and  was  declared  to  have  been  ratified 
in  a  message  from  the  President  to  Congress, 
dated  Jan.  8,  1798. 

ARTICLE  XI 
Judicial  Powers  Construed 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States 
shall  not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit 
in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted 
against  one  of  the  United  States,  by  citizens 
of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects 
of  any  foreign  state. 


The  following  amendment  was  proposed  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Eighth  Congress  on  the  12th  of  December, 
1803,  and  was  declared  to  have  been  ratified 
in  a  proclamation  by  the  Secretary  of  State, 
dated  September  25,  1804. 

ARTICLE  XII 
Choosing  President  and  Vice-President 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and 
Vice-President,  one  of  whom  at  least  shall 
not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  dis- 
tinct ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice- 
President;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists 
of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of 
all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and 
of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  list 
they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit, 
sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  Government  of  the 


THE       CONSTITUTION  — AM  ENDMENTS 


71 


United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of 
the  Senate;  the  President  of  the  Senate  shall, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and 
the  votes  shall  then  be  counted;  the  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  Presi- 
dent shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors 
appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  such  ma- 
jority, then  from  the  persons  having  the  high- 
est numbers,  not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list 
of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of 
Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by 
ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the 
President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States, 
the  representation  from  each  State  having 
one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  con- 
sist of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds 
of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States 
shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a 
President,  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall 
devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of 
March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of 
the  President.  The  person  having  the  great- 
est number  of  votes  as  Vice-President  shall 
be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  ap- 
pointed, and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list 
the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President; 
a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators, 
and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  consti- 
tutionally ineligible  to  the  office  of  President 
shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States. 


I 


The  following  amendment  was  proposed  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Thirty-eighth  Congress  on  the  1st  of  Febru- 
ary, 1865,  and  was  declared  to  have  been  rati- 
fied in  a  proclamation  by  the  Secretary  of 
State,  dated  December  13,  1865. 

ARTICLE  XIII 
Slavery  Abolished 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servi- 
tude, except  as  a  punishment  for  crime 
whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  con- 
victed, shall  exist  within  the  United  States, 
or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 


BALLOT   OF    CANDIDATES,    ELECTORAL 

COLLEGE— 1920 

The   members   to   the    Electoral   College  are   chosen   by 
direct  vote  of  the  people. — Article  12,  Amendment. 


ABRAHAM    LINCOLN— THE  GREAT 
EMANCIPATOR 


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CHILDREN  OF  ALIENS,  BORN   IN  AMERICA 

"  AU  persons  born  .  .  .  in  the  United  States,  .  .  .  are 
citizens  of  the  United  States." — Article  14,  Paragraph  1, 
Amendment. 


U.   S.    A.    BONDS,    A    PUBLIC    DEBT 

"  The   validity  of  the  public  dept  of  the   United  States 
.  .  .  shall  not  be  questioned." — Article   14,   Paragraph   4, 
Amendment. 


The  following,  popularly  known  as  the  Re- 
construction Amendment,  was  proposed  to  the 
Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Thirty-ninth  Congress  on  the  16th  of  June, 
1866,  and  was  declared  to  have  been  ratified 
in  a  proclamation  by  the  Secretary  of  State, 
dated  July  28,  1868.  The  amendment  got  the 
support  of  23  Northern  States;  it  was  rejected 
by  Delaware,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  and  10 
Southern  States.  California  took  no  action. 
Subsequently  it  was  ratified  by  the  10  South- 
ern States, 


ARTICLE  XIV 
Citizenship  Rights  Not  to  Be  Abridged 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the 
United  States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State 
shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States;  nor  shall  any  State 
deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  prop- 
erty without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to 
any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal 
protection  of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned, 
among  the  several  States  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  num- 
ber of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians 
not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at 
any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for 
President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  ex- 
ecutive and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or 
the.  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is 
denied  to  any  of  the  male  members  of  such 
State,  being  of  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way 
abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion 
or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation 
therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion 
which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall 
bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Repre- 
sentative in  Congress,  or  elector  of  President 
and  Vice-President,  or  holding  any  office, 
civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States, 
or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously 
taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or 
as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a 
member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an 
executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to 
support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  same,  or  given  aid  and  comfort 
to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may, 
by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  re- 
move such  disability. 


THE       CONSTITUTION  — AMENDMENTS 


7Z 


4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the 
United  States,  authorized  by  law,  including 
debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insur- 
rection and  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned. 
But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation 
incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for 
the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave;  but  all 
such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be 
held   illegal   and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  en- 
force by  appropriate  legislation  the  provisions 
of  this  article. 


The  following  amendment  was  proposed  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Fortieth  Congress  on  the  27th  of  February, 
1869,  and  was  declared  to  have  been  ratified 
in  a  proclamation  by  the  Secretary  of  State, 
dated  March  30,  1870.  It  was  not  acted  on  by 
Tennessee;  it  was  rejected  by  California, 
Delaware.  Kentucky,  Maryland,  and  Oregon; 
ratified  by  the  remaining  30  States.  New  York 
rescinded  its  ratification  January  5,  1870.  New 
Jersey  rejected  it  in  1870,  but  ratified  it  in 
1871. 

ARTICLE  XV 
Equal  Rights  for  Citizens 

1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged 
by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  ac- 
count of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of 
servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  en- 
force the  provisions  of  this  article  by  appro- 
priate legislation. 


The  following  amendment  was  proposed  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Sixty-first  Congress  on  the  12th  day  of  July, 
1909,  and  was  declared  to  have  been  ratified 
in  a  proclamation  by  the  Secretary  of  State, 
dated  February  25,  1913.  The  income  tax 
amendment  was  ratified  by  all  the  States  ex- 
cept Connecticut,  Florida,  Pennsylvania, 
Rhode  Island,  Utah,  and  Virginia. 


ARTICLE  XVI 

Income  Taxes  Authorized 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and 
collect  taxes  on  incomes,  from  whatever 
sources  derived,  without  apportionment 
among  the  several  States,  and  without  regard 
to  any  census  or  enumeration. 


SIX  DIFFERENT  RACES  SHOWN   HERE 

These  American  soldiers,  who  fought  in  the  Great 
World  War,  represent  the  toUowing  races:  (1)  Chinese, 
(2)  Italian,  (3)  Greek,  (4)  American.  (5)  Russian, 
and   (6)    Turkish. 

"  The  right  of  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  .  .  .  on  account  of  race." 
Article  15,  Amendment. 


WOMAN     ENTERING    VOTING    BOOTH 

The  Nineteenth  Amendment  added  the  word  "  sex  "  to 
the  Fifteenth  Amendment. 


PAYING     INCOME    TAX 
"  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on 
incomes." — Article    16,    Amendment. 


74 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


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FORMER    SECRETARY   OF    STATE    BRYAN 
SIGNING   17TH   AMENDMENT  TO  THE 
CONSTITUTION,    MAY   31,    1913 
".The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of 
two  senators  from  each  state,  elected  by  the  people." — 
Article    17,   Amendment. 


The  following  amendment  was  proposed  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Sixty-second  Congress  on  the  16th  day  of 
May,  1912,  and  was  declared  to  have  been  rati- 
fied in  a  proclamation  by  the  Secretary  ofi 
State,  dated  May  31.  1913.  It  got  the  vote  of 
all  the  States  except  Alabama,  Delaware, 
Florida,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Mary- 
land, Mississippi,  Rhode  Island,  South  Caro- 
lina, Utah,  and  Virginia, 

ARTICLE  XVII 
Election  of  United  States  Senators 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  composed  of  two  Senators  from  each  State, 
elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years; 
and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The 
electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  quali- 
fications requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislatures. 

2.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  represen- 
tation of  any  State  in  the  Senate,  the  execu- 
tive authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs 
of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies;  Provided, 
That  the  Legislature  of  any  State  may  em- 
power the  Executive  thereof  to  make  tem- 
porary appointment  until  the  people  fill  the 
vacancies  by  election  as  the  Legislature  may 
direct. 

3.  This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  affect  the  election  or  term  of  any 
Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as 
part  of  the  Constitution. 


FEDERAL      OFFICERS      ENFORCING     THE 

EIGHTEENTH   AMENDMENT 
"  The  manufacture,  sale,  or  transportation  of  intoxicat- 
ing   liquors    .    .    .    is    hereby    prohibited." — Article    18, 
Amendment. 


The  following  amendment  was  proposed  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Sixty- fifth  Congress,  Dec.  18,  1917;  and  on 
Jan.  29,  1919,  the  United  States  Secretary  of 
State  proclaimed  its  adoption  by  36  States, 
and  declared  it  in  effect  on  Jan.  16,  1920. 

Early  in  1920,  the  validity  of  the  Eighteenth 
Amendment  was  upheld  by  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  in  suits  to  void,  brought 
by  the  States  of  Rhode  Island  and  New  Jer- 
sey, and  by  various  brewers  and  distillers. 


ARTICLE  XVIII 
Liquor  Prohibition  Amendment 

1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of 
this  article  the  manufacture,  sale,  or  trans- 
portation of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the 
importation  thereof  into,  or  the  exportation 
thereof  from  the  United  States  and  all  terri- 
tory subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  for 
beverage    purposes    is   hereby   prohibited. 

2.  The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall 
have  concurrent  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 

3.  This  article  shall  be  inoperative  unless 
it  shall  have  been  ratified  as  an  amendment  to 


THE      CONSTITUTION  — AMENDMENTS 


75 


the  Constitution  by  the  Legislatures  of  the 
several  States,  as  provided  in  the  Constitu- 
tion, within  seven  years  from  the  date  of  the 
submission  hereof  to  the  States  by  the  Con- 
gress. 


The  following  amendment  Was  proposed  to 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  States  by  the 
Sixty-fifth  Congress,  having  been  adopted  by 
the  House  of  Representatives,  May  21,  1919, 
and  by  the  Senate,  June  4,  1919.  On  Aug.  26, 
1920,  the  United  States  Secretary  of  State 
proclaimed  it  in  effect,  having  been  adopted 
(June  10,  1919-Aug.  18,  1920),  by  three-quar- 
ters of  the  States.  The  Tennessee  House, 
Aug.  31,  rescinded  its  ratification  47  to  24. 

ARTICLE  XIX 
Nation-Wide  Suffrage  to  Women 

1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States 
to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by 
the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account 
of  sex. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power,  by  appropri- 
ate legislation,  to  enforce  the  provisions  of 
this  Article. 


EEHWCflHI       \ 


WOMEN'S    SUFFRAGE    DEMONSTRATION 

"  The   right   of   citizens   of   the    United   States    to   vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  .  .  .  on  account  of  sex." 

— Article  19,  Amendment. 


THE    GREAT    SEAL    OF    THE    UNITED 
STATES  OF  AMERICA 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


AMERICAN  CITIZENS  OF  THE  FUTURE 
Citizenship  is  the  highest  and  greatest  gift  of  the  nation 


CHAPTER  V 


American  Citizenship 


Intelligence,  Self  Control,  and  Conscience — the  Three  Qualities  Most 
Needed  in  the  Citizens  of  a  Democracy 


OVER  34,000,000  IMMIGRANTS 
have  entered  the  United  States 
since  1820.  At  the  present  time, 
according  to  the  1920  census,  there  are 
13,712,754  foreign  born  in  America,  in- 
cluding immigrants  from  more  than  two 
score  nations.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, who  are  American  citizens  and 
how  may  one  become  an  American  citi- 
zen, are  vital  ques- 
tions that  touch  us 
all,  native  and  alien 
born  alike. 


The  Greatest  Gift 

Citizenship  is  the 
highest  and  greatest 
gift  of  the  nation. 
When  conferred  on 
an  individual  who 
comes  from  another 
land,  it  makes  of 
him  or  her  a  part 
of  our  great  society, 
and  clothes  such  an 
individual  with  the 
rights  and  privi- 
leges of  a  native 
American  citizen. 

This  gift,  from 
the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, itself,  natur- 
ally and  rightly,  is  given  only  to  those 
aliens  who  will  fit  in  with  the  American 
civilization.  To  those  who  give  evidence 
of  sound  moral  and  political  character; 
to  those  who  are  willing  to  take  the 
trouble  of  showing,  through  study  of 
the  Constitution,  the  American  Govern- 
ment, and  the  English  language,  their 
appreciation  of,  and  their  ability  to  iise 
with  judgment  this  great  gift  of  citi- 
zenship— to  all  those,  this  gift  is  freely, 
gladly,  and  wholeheartedly  given. 


Four  Steps 


npHERE  are  four  steps 
which  an  alien  must 


take  to  become  an  Ameri- 
can citizen:  First,  he 
must  file  a  Declaration  of 
Intention;  second,  a  Cer- 


Naturalization 

Naturally,  the  people  of  the  United 
States  fall  into  two  classes,  citizens  and 
aliens.  The  Government  has  provided  a 
means  whereby  men  and  women  from 
other  countries  —  aliens  —  may  become 
citizens  of  the  United  States.  This 
method  of  becoming  a  citizen  is  called 
naturalization.  It  is  the  act  of  adopting 
foreigners  and 
clothing  them  with 
American  citizen- 
ship. There  are 
three  ways  through 
which  an  alien  may 
become  a  natural- 
ized citizen  of  the 
United  States. 


tificate  of  Arrival;  third, 
a  Petition  for  Natural- 
ization ;  fourth,  he  must 
appear  before  a  judge, 
submit  to  an  examination, 
and  declare  on  oath  his 
allegiance  to  America. 


The  First  Way 

In  the  first  place, 
the  National  Gov- 
ernment may  confer 
citizenship  upon 
certain  people  en 
masse,  collectively, 
or  upon  particular 
classes  of  persons. 
Such  naturalization 
may  come  to  indi- 
viduals as  the  result 
of  conquest,  by 
treaty,  by  special  act  of  congress,  or 
when  newstates  are  admitted  to  the  Union. 
For  example:  The  citizens  of  the 
former  independent  state  of  Texas  be- 
came citizens  of  the  United  States  when 
Texas  was  admitted  to  the  Union.  In 
1917,  the  people  of  Porto  Rico,  as  a 
body,  became  full  citizens  of  the  United 
States  by  act  of  Congress.  When 
Louisiana,  Florida,  and  Alaska  were 
bought  from  France,  Spain,  and  Russia 
respectively,  the  people  living  in  those 


77 


78 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Over  34,000,000  aliens  have  come  to  this  country 
since  1820.  At  present  there  are  almost  14,000,000  for- 
eign born  in  the  United  States.  Nearly  10,000,000  live 
in  18  PER  CENT  OF  THE  TERRITORY  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES,— that  part  enclosed  by  the  heavy 
lines  drawn   on  the   map.      In  this  section   are   most 


of  our  great  cities.  THE  TOP  CIRCLE  is  interesting 
for  it  shows  the  proportion  of  foreign  born  and  those 
of  foreign  born  parentage  to  the  native  white  popu- 
lation of  this  country.  THE  SECOND  CIRCLE  shows 
the  percentage  of  each  of  the  more  important  alien 
races  that  go  to  make  up  this  huge  total  of  13,712,754 
foreign  born  in  the  United  States  today. 


regions  later  became  citizens  of 
the  United  States  in  this  collec- 
tive manner. 

The  Second  Way 

Citizenship,  in  the  second 
place,  may  be  acquired  through 
the  naturalization,  or  through 
the  American  citizenship  of 
someone  else.  Minor  children, 
for  example,  may  become  citi- 
zens through  the  naturalization 
of  their  father.  A  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  however,  cannot 
give  American  citizenship  by 
adoption  to  a  child  of  foreign 
born  nationality. 

Citizenship  of  Women 

Formerly,  the  wife  of  a  for- 
eigner automatically  became  a 
citizen  of  this  country  when  her 
husband  was  naturalized.  On 
the  other  hand,  an  American 
woman  who  married  a  foreigner 
automatically  lost  her  American 
citizenship.  A  new  law  changes 
this,  and  provides  "  that  the  right 
of  any  woman  to  become  a  nat- 
uralized citizen  of  the  United 
States  shall  not  be  denied  or 
abridged  because  of  her  sex,  or 
because  she  is  a  married  woman." 

Now,  a  woman  who  marries  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  or 
whose  husband  becomes  natural- 
ized does  not  automatically  be- 
come a  citizen.  She,  herself, 
must  be  naturalized.  In  doing 
so,  however,  she  does  not  have  to 
file  a  Declaration  of  Intention 
and  is  only  required  to  have  lived 
continuously  in  the  United 
States,  Hawaii,  Alaska,  or  Porto 
Rico  for  one  year,  at  least,  pre- 
ceding the  filing  of  her  petition. 
A  woman  citizen  of  the  United 
States  who  marries  a  foreigner 
(except  one  ineligible  to  Amer- 
ican Citizenship)   does  not  lose 


AMERICAN      CITIZENSHIP 


79 


her  American  Citizenship  unless 
she  in  court  formally  renounces 
it.  A  woman  who  before  the 
passage  of  this  new  law  had  lost 
her  United  States  Citizenship  by 
reason  of  a  marriage  to  a  for- 
eigner, may  regain  this  citizen- 
ship by  naturalization. 

The  Third  Way 

Unless  naturalized  in  one  of 
these  two  ways,  an  alien  must 
go  through  the  third  method  of 
naturalization — the  formal  pro- 
cess of  taking  out  citizenship 
papers.  The  right  to  do  this  is 
not  granted  to  all  foreign  born 
people.  According  to  the  nat- 
uralization laws,  only  those 
aliens  who  are  white  or  who  are 
of  African  nativity  or  of  African 
descent,  are  eligible  for  Ameri- 
can citizenship. 

Since  the  Chinese  and  Japan- 
ese, and  members  of  other  yellow 
or  brown  races,  are  not  consid- 
ered white  persons  or  persons  of 
the  African  race,  they  are  ex- 
cluded from  becoming  citizens 
of  the  United  States. 

Those  who  can  neither  speak 
nor  understand  English  cannot 
become  citizens  of  the  United 
States  by  naturalization.  Neither 
can  polygamists,  and  criminals, 
such  as  murderers,  thieves,  bri- 
bers and  perjurers,  or  persons  of 
immoral  character  become 
naturalized.  Individuals  not 
believing  in,  or  opposed  to  or- 
ganized government,  or  members 
of  or  affiliated  with  any  group  or 
association  of  persons  teaching 
such  doctrines,  are  also  barred 
from  this  great  privilege  of 
American  citizenship. 

Four  Necessary  Steps 

There  are  four  necessary  steps 
which  must  be  taken  by  an  alien 


Since  about  one-eighth  of  our  total  population  of 
105,710,620  is  of  alien  birth,  the  subject  of  American 
citizenship  is  of  great  importance.  There  are  those 
who  cannot  become  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
Illiterates,  polygamists,  CRIiVIINALS,  and  those  op- 
posed to  organized   government,  cannot  become  citi- 


zens. Only  those  who  are  of  good  character,  and  who 
are  WHITE  PERSONS,  or,  who  are  of  AFRICAN 
NATIVITY  or  of  African  descent  can  become  citizens. 


80 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


FACTS  FOR  DECLARATION  OF  INTENTION 


U.  &  DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR 


lb*  fnm  Is  lu  b«  itlarn*ii  to  Ih«Vl«rh,  to  b«  uMd  bj  h>B  tnpntpmr^j  iltlnir  out  Ik* 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR 


.TPin    -<T« 


©t^tisop^^ 


W  DECLARATION  OF  INTENTION  «? 

^"Invalid  for  all  purposes  seven  years  after  the  date  hereof 

In  the- Court 

of.. 


The  first  step  that  an  alien  who  desires  to  become  a 
citizen  must  take  is  to  file  a  Declaration  of  Intention. 
Before  he  files  such  a  Declaration  he  should  secure 
a  paper  called  FACTS  FOR  DECLARATION  OF 
INTENTION,  and  if  he  cannot  do  so  himself,  he 
should  get  someone  to  assist  him  to  fill   it  out  prop- 


erly. Then,  WHEN  HE  GOES  TO  THE  CLERK  OF 
THE  COURT'S  OFFICE,  he  will  know  how  to  fill  out 
properly    the    Declaration    of    Intention.       The    alien 


REQUEST  FOR  CERTIFICATE  OF  ARRIVAL 

FOR  U»C  OF  ALIENS  ARRIVING  AFTER  JUNE  29.  I«0« 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR 

NATURAUZATION  tCIIVICC 
M>>«  •>  »•  CM  </d<  Om  ; 

TU«  form  U  U  W  tm4  Mij  whtn  u  ftlteo  krrhMl  lo  tUt  eotiDlr,  tn«r  Jam  29,  I9M. 

Wk«  ■•  tlm,  daiio  w  lalltaon  lo,  i»nu^„iioii.  tUi  locm  iihouM  bo  sivn>  to  kim  baton  be  U  pomitud  to  ilo  Ua  pattdai. 
»4  lU  nttutiom  at  1h»  paulios  luf  utunliutioa  .bould  not  b«  comuMKad  uati]  tba  cortijkat*  of  amv^  ]•  t«cuv»d  iy  lb*  cWk 
.....     ..     Tb«.UCT*<iuUb.dii«lrftoco»pl.l«ti«fcii,,b.lowuidc»aftil)y6UlnJltbobl«iik.liiihl.lonii^ 

b  of  tb«  coon  in  filiii|{  tba  jwtitioi]  lor  naumliiatioB.    7^>li« 


KMMjy  toobtatalbacanUkataofanival,  ud  m 


•bouU  IbM  naj  tbia  Ion*  lo  Iba  Coni»Mnnar  of  Nalunjiaatko,  De|iaitaaat  of  Labor,  WMhincioo,  D.  0. 

Thai  oOt  ia]  win  at  oeea  taka  ataiM  10  abtaia  aad  lorwiH  to  tba  cleak  of  court  tba  carti&«u  of  amval  raquijed  bT  •ctioo  4  of  lb* 
ilofJvBaZt,  IN*,  tohaattocfcad  to  and  toad*  a  put  of  tba  Jiatilioa  at  tba  tima  of  ita  Uiaf.    Tba  Mlement  of  facta  «tU  ako  ba 
"'  *     " a  cartificato  baa  b*«a  acBl  to  Ibaclarb  of  tba  court 


lar>onM  to  Iba  claik  at  Iba  CI 


Xalica  ulU  ako  ba  fhaa  to  tba  aliaa  tl 


CoMHiMioNCk  or  NaTvaAUunoif, 

U.  S.  DcraBTHEirr  or  Labob, 

WalBIMITOH,   D.  C. 

Su:  I  cMa  lo  tkk  couolry  »/ier  Juna  2»,  190<.    PUtM  obuin  •  certific»l«  •l>owia(  By  urirml  in  tit 
JVtiUd  SUIM  biid  for««d  il  t«  tha  Clerk  of  tlw _ 


must,  in  the  second  place,  secure  a  CERTIFICATE 
OF  ARRIVAL,  that  is,  if  he  came  to  this  country 
before  1906.  To  secure  this  certificate,  he  must  make 
a  request  for  it  tP  the  Bureau  of  Naturalization. 


man  or  woman  who  desires  to 
become  an  American  citizen. 
First,  a  paper  called  a  Declara- 
tion of  Intention  must  be  filed. 
Second,  a  Certificate  of  Arrival 
must  be  secured.  Third,  a  second 
paper  called  a  Petition  for  Nat- 
uralization must  be  filled  out  and 
filed.  Fourth,  the  applicant  must 
appear  before  a  judge,  submit  to 
an  examination  regarding  his 
knowledge  of  the  Constitution 
and  his  loyalty  to  the  American 
Government,  and  declare  on  oath 
in  open  court  that  he  will  sup- 
port the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  and  renounce  all 
allegiance  to  any  other  country. 
The  entire  cost  is  but  $5.00; 
$1.00  when  the  First  Paper  (the 
Declaration  of  Intention)  is  filed 
and  the  remaining  $4.00  when 
the  Petition  for  Naturalization 
is  filed  with  the  Clerk  of  Court. 

The  Declaration  of   Intention 

The  first  step  that  an  alien 
desiring  to  become  a  citizen 
must  take  is  to  declare  his  pur- 
pose of  becoming  one  by  filing 
a  Declaration  of  Intention  to  re- 
side permanently  in  the  United 
States  and  within  seven  years  to 
renounce  all  allegiance  to  his 
former  country  and  to  its  ruler. 

Any  alien,  man  or  woman, 
eligible  to  citizenship,  and  over 
eighteen  years  of  age,  may  file 
such  a  declaration  at  the  office 
of  the  Clerk  of  Court.  In  order 
to  do  so,  witnesses  need  not  be 
brought,  nor  is  it  necessary  for 
the  alien  to  be  able  to  speak  Eng- 
lish at  the  time.  In  fact,  he  does 
not  have  to  be  able  even  to  sign 
his  name;  his  mark  will  do.  This 
declaration  is  usually  called 
"  The  First  Papers" 


AMERICAN      CITIZENSHIP 


81 


The  Certificate  of  Arrival 

All  aliens  who  came  to  the 
United  States  after  June  29th, 
1906,  must  secure  a  Certificate  of 
Arrival.  This  is  the  second  step. 
Those  who  came  before  this  time 
do  not  require  such  a  certificate. 
The  application  has  spaces  to 
show  the  time,  the  place,  and  the 
manner  of  arrival  in  the  United 
States  and  may  be  secured  free 
of  charge  from  the  Clerk  of 
Court,  or,  from  some  agency  in 
the  community  in  which  the  alien 
lives  which  is  interested  in  nat- 
uralization. After  this  request 
for  a  Certificate  of  Arrival  is 
made  out,  it  must  be  sent  to  the 
Bureau  of  Naturalization,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  and  returned  with 
the  Certificate  of  Arrival  to  the 
Clerk  of  the  Court  to  whom  the 
alien  has  applied  for  citizenship. 
The  applicant  is  then  notified 
that  his  Certificate  of  Arrival 
has  been  received  and  is  in- 
structed to  proceed  at  once  with 
the  third  step. 

Petition  for  Naturalization 

The  third  step  is  the  ialing  of 
a  Petition  for  Naturalization, 
commonly  called  "Application 
for  Second  Papers."  This  im- 
portant step  is  called  a  petition 
because  the  individual  is  request- 
ing the  United  States  of  America 
to  make  him  one  of  its  citizens. 

This  Application  for  Second 
Papers  must  be  made  out  at  least 
two  years  after  and  not  more 
than  seven  years  after  the  alien's 
Declaration  of  Intention.  If  he 
waits  more  than  seven  years  he 
must  make  out  a  new  Declaration 
or  "  First  Paper  "  before  making 
application  for  his  second  papers 
as  his  original  Declaration  of 
Intention  is  of  no  value. 


FACTS  FOR  PETITION  FOR  NATURALIZATION 


If  the  records  show  that  the  applicant  is  eligible 
for  citizenship  in  so  far  as  the  facts  bearing  upon 
his  arrival  to  this  country  are  concerned,  the  Bureau 
of    Naturalization    will    send    the    Certificate    to    the 


Clerk  of  the  Court  to  whom  the  alien  has  applied  for 
citizenship.  Then  the  alien  takes  the  third  step,  the 
filing  of  a  PETITION   FOR  NATURALIZATION.     In 


filing   this   petition,   the   petitioner,  whether   man   or 
woman,  must  take  TWO  WITNESSES  to  the  court. 


82 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Within  ninety  days  after  the  filing  of  the  Petition 
for  Naturalization,  the  petitioner  and  his  witnesses 
will  be  examined  by  a  NATURALIZATION  EXAMI- 
NER.    After  the  ninety  days,  if  this  preliminary  ex- 


HI 

m        m                     jmM||||«| 

amination  has  proven  satisfactory,  the  alien  and  his 
witnesses  will  be  examined  a  second  time,  but  this 
time  IN  OPEN  COURT  BEFORE  THE  JUDGE.      If  the 


Court  is  satisfied  that  the  applicant  has  met  all  the 
requirements  of  the  naturalization  law,  then  the  alien 
will  be  asked  to  take  the  OATH  OF  ALLEGIANCE. 


Two  Witnesses 

Every  alien,  in  order  to  make 
the  petition  (Petition  for  Nat- 
uralization), must  have  resided 
in  the  United  States  at  least  five 
consecutive  years,  and  at  least 
one  year  in  the  State  in  which 
the  petition  is  made.  He  must 
appear  at  the  office  of  the  Clerk 
of  the  Court  to  file  his  petition. 
Two  citizens  of  the  United 
States  who  have  personally 
known  him  for  Hve  years  in  the 
United  States,  the  last  of  which 
must  be  in  the  State  in  which  he 
makes  his  petition,  must  come 
with  him  as  witnesses,  and  be 
willing  to  testify  to  his  good  and 
law  abiding  character  and  to  his 
respect  and  love  for  America  and 
American  ideals  and  institutions. 

If  the  alien  has  not  lived  for 
five  years  in  the  state  he  may 
bring  two  witnesses  who  have 
known  him  all  of  the  time  he 
has  lived  in  the  State,  and  secure 
written  statements  from  two 
other  citizens  who  knew  him 
while  he  lived  in  any  other  state. 
The  petitioner  must  also  take 
with  him  his  first  papers  (the 
Declaration  of  Intention),  and 
his  notice  from  the  Bureau  of 
Naturalization  that  his  Certifi- 
cate of  Arrival  has  been  sent  to 
the  Court. 

The  Examination 

Not  less  than  ninety  days  after 
the  filing  of  this  petition  (Peti- 
tition  for  Naturalization),  the 
applicant  must  take  the  fourth 
and  last  step  in  becoming  an 
American  citizen.  Now  he  must 
appear  in  open  court.  During 
the  ninety  days  and  before  tak- 
ing this  final  step,  the  Federal 
Government,  through  its  nat- 
uralization examiners,  conducts 
a  thorough  investigation  of  the 


AMERICAN      CITIZENSHIP 


83 


statements  made  by  the  peti- 
tioner and  his  witnesses.  A 
naturalization  examiner  will 
question  the  alien  regarding 
his  knowledge  o£  the  Govern- 
ment and  history  o£  the  United 
States,  also  about  the  govern- 
ment of  the  state  and  city  in 
which  he  lives. 

Final  Papers 

The  petitioner,  after  appearing 
before  the  examiners,  then  pre- 
sents himself  in  open  court.  He 
is  examined  again  by  the  Judge 
and  if  found  acceptable,  is  al- 
lowed to  take  the  Oath  of  Allegi- 
ance to  the  United  States.  After 
taking  the  oath,  the  new  citizen 
is  given  a  CertiUcate  of  Naturali- 
zation usually  called  "  Second 
Papers,"  which  shows  him  to  be 
an  American  citizen. 

The  Oath  of  Allegiance    '* 

The  oath  which  the  petitioner 
takes  is : 

"  I  HEREBY  DECLARE  ON 
OATH,  THAT  I  ABSOLUTE- 
LY AND  ENTIRELY  RE- 
NOUNCE AND  ABJURE  ALL 
ALLEGIANCE  AND  FIDEL- 
ITY TO  ANY  FOREIGN 
PRINCE,  POTENTATE, 
STATE  OR  SOVEREIGNTY, 
AND  PARTICULARLY  TO 
(NAME  OF  SOVEREIGN  OF 
COUNTRY),  OF  WHOM  I 
HAVE  HERETOFORE  BEEN 
A  SUBJECT;  THAT  I  WILL 
SUPPORT  AND  DEFEND 
THE  CONSTITUTION  AND 
LAWS  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  OF  AMERICA 
AGAINST  ALL  ENEMIES, 
FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC, 
AND  THAT  I  WILL  BEAR 
TRUE  FAITH  AND  ALLE- 
GIANCE TO  THE  SAME." 


A  woman  who  is  applying  for  citizenship  must  take 
the  same  steps  as  a  man.  She,  too,  with  her  two  wit- 
nesses, must  PASS  A  PRELIMINARY  EXAMINA- 
TION.     She    too,    with    her    two    witnesses,    MUST 


APPEAR  IN  OPEN  COURT  and  satisfy  the  Judge 
as  to  her  knowledge  of  the  American  Government 
and  the  Constitution  and  the  government  of  the  state 


and  city  in  which  she  lives.  After  which,  if  the 
Court  is  satisfied,  she  MUST  TAKE  THE  OATH 
OF   ALLEGIANCE. 


84 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


After  the  oath  of  allegiance  has  been  administered, 
the  newly  naturalized  citizen  IS  HANDED  A  CER- 
TIFICATE   OF    NATURALIZATION    which    certifie"? 


n 

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^fa^ 

)i^ 

w 

"■jm-"^^ 

IHipi 

1 

t^ 

jjll^ 

that  the  holder  has  met  all  the  requirements  of  the 
law  and  is  entitled  to  enjoy  all  the  civil  and  political 
rights   that   a    native   born    American   citizen   enjoys. 


This  is  a  reduced  fac-simile  of  a  CERTIFICATE 
OF  NATURALIZATION  which  every  citizen  receives 
upon  becoming  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United 
States.  The  holder  of  such  a  certificate  should  care- 
fully preserve  it,  as  there  are  times  when  he  may  be 
asked  to  produce  It. 


Comply  With  Law 

It  is  to  the  interest  of  an  alien 
desiring  citizenship  that  he  com- 
ply to  the  fullest  extent  with  the 
plain  requirements  of  the  nat- 
uralization law  before  filing  his 
petition.  Courts  may  cancel  cer- 
tificates of  naturalization  when 
received  through  fraud,  or  even 
under  misunderstanding  or  mis- 
interpretation of  the  law. 

False  statements  on  the  part 
of  an  alien  desiring  citizenship, 
or  on  the  part  of  his  witnesses, 
are  felonies  under  the  Federal 
Statutes  and  are  severely  pun- 
ished by  fine  and  imprisonment. 

Citizenship  Classes 

In  many  parts  of  the  United 
States,  citizenship  classes  have 
been  organized  to  meet  the  needs 
of  aliens  taking  out  their  nat- 
uralization papers,  and  these 
classes  should  be  used  by  the 
declarants,  and  petitioners  and 
their  wives  wherever  possible. 
The  Bureau  of  Naturalization  at 
Washington  is  also  ready  to 
assist  aliens  to  solve  their  diffi- 
culties in  becoming  American 
citizens. 

Many  fall  by  the  wayside  be- 
fore completing  all  the  necessary 
steps.  During  the  years  from  1907 
to  1922,  over  3,700,000  Declara- 
tions of  Intention  were  filed. 
Only  1,885,620,  or  about  one- 
half,  made  petitions  for  their 
second  papers  during  the  same 
time,  and  of  these,  only  1,608,437 
secured  their  final  Certificates  of 
Citizenship. 

Soldiers  and  Sailors 

Honorably  discharged  soldiers 
and  sailors  of  foreign  birth  who 
served  during  the  World  War 
are  exempt  from  some  of  these 
naturalization  steps.     A  veteran 


AMERICAN      CITIZENSHIP 


85 


may  take  his  discharge  from  our 
army  or  navy  to  a  naturalization 
examiner,  be  identified  by  two 
American  citizens,  and  then  file 
his  petition  for  naturalization 
in  the  naturalization  court  most 
convenient  to  him.  That  court 
will  hear  his  petition  immedi- 
ately, and  he  can  secure,  without 
further  trouble,  his  naturaliza- 
tion certificate  as  an  American 
citizen. 

The  Bureau  of  Naturalization 
at  Washington  is  ready  to  advise 
any  foreign  born  American 
soldier  or  sailor  regarding  his 
citizenship  status. 

Citizenship  Difficulties 

Naturalized  citizens,  and  chil- 
dren of  naturalized  aliens — 
sometimes  even  the  children 
born  in  this  country  of  foreign 
parents,  often  are  faced  with 
serious  and  confusing  citizen- 
ship difficulties  when  they  leave 
this  country.  One  difficulty 
arises  over  the  fact  that  some 
countries — most  European  and 
Latin-American  countries — claim 
as  their  citizens  all  children  born 
abroad  of  their  own  nationals. 

Uncle  Sam,  on  the  other  hand, 
while  making  the  same  claim, 
also  claims  as  citizens  all  chil- 
dren born  on  American  soil  no 
matter  what  the  nationality  of 
their  parents  may  be,  and  regard- 
less of  race,  sex  or  color.  He 
even  regards  as  Americans  the 
children  born  here  of  Chinese 
and  Japanese  parents  even 
though  he  does  not  allow  their 
parents    to   become    naturalized. 

Naturally,  misunderstandings 
arise,  especially  when  people  re- 
turn to  the  old  country. 

Generally  such  difficulties  are 
settled    in    a   mutually    friendly 


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^^^^^^  ^I^^^H 

^Hfl 

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^  '^H 

I^^B 

^^^ 

mmMMK/ 

Soldiers  and  sailors  of  foreign  birth  who  served 
during  the  World  War,  can  acquire  citizenship  more 
easily  than  civilian  aliens.  A  veteran  may  take  his 
discharge  paper  to  a  Naturalization  Examiner,  be 
identified  by  two  American  citizens,  and  then  FILE 
HIS   PETITION    FOR    NATURALIZATION.      He   will 


be    heard    immediately    IN    ANY    NATURALIZATION 
COURT   in   the  district   in   which    he    lives,   and   can 


secure,    without    further    trouble,    his    naturalization 
certificate  as  an  American  citizen. 

Note:  The  photographs  illustrating  the  steps  taken  in  the 
process  of  naturalization,  and  run  on  this  and  the  preceding 
pages  ot  this  chapter,  were  made  exclusively  for  this  book  by 
authority  of  James  J.  Davis,  Secretary  of  Labor,  and  under  the 
direction  of  Raymond  F.  Crist  and  O.  T.  Moore  of  the  Bureau 
of  Naturalization. 


86 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Every  citizen  should  know,  obey,  and  support  the 
law.  The  symbol  of  the  law  of  our  country  is  the  flag. 
Everyone  should  observe  these  simple  rules  which 
are  called  "Courtesy  to  the  Flag."  The  flag  should 
never  be  left  outside  after  sundown.  It  should 
always  BE  HUNG  FREE,  that  is,  it  should  never  be 
tied  or  tacked  to  anything.     When  the  flag  passes  by. 


during  a  parade,  for  example,  ALL  MALE  CITIZENS 
SHOULD  SALUTE  IT  as  Theodore  Roosevelt  and 
the  late  Mayor  Mitchel  of  New  York  City  are  seen 
saluting  it.  If  the  citizen  lis  in  uniform  he  must 
salute   as   the   officers   in    the   picture    are   saluting. 


manner,  but  in  times  of  war 
nations  are  apt  to  claim  as  citi- 
zens, everyone  they  possibly  can, 
especially  young  men.  People 
who  come  under  this  double  citi- 
zenship rule — who  have  two  citi- 
zenships— may  find  it  trouble- 
some if  they  go  back  to  the  old 
country  during  such  times.  One 
should  be  sure  of  his  citizenship 
before  traveling  in  war  time. 

Citizenship  Endangered 

Naturalized  citizens  who  leave 
the  United  States  must  also  be 
careful  about  the  length  of  time 
they  remain  away.  Naturaliza- 
tion is  a  privilege  and  may  be 
revoked. 

If  within  five  years  after  se- 
curing citizenship  papers  an  in- 
dividual returns  to  his  native 
country,  and  lives  there  for  two 
years,  or  if  he  goes  to  another 
country  and  stays  away  from 
this  country  for  five  years,  his 
naturalization  may  be  canceled 
by  our  Government. 

The  Federal  authorities  as- 
sume that  such  an  individual 
does  not  desire  to  remain  an 
American  citizen.  Diplomatic 
and  Consular  officers  of  the 
United  States  are  obliged  to  give 
to  the  Department  of  Justice  the 
name  of  such  a  person. 

In  order  to  prevent  such  loss 
of  citizenship,  a  naturalized  citi- 
zen must  report  to  the  American 
Embassy  or  to  an  American  Con- 
sular Office  in  the  foreign  coun- 
try where  he  is  living  and  pre- 
sent satisfactory  evidence  of  his 
intention  to  remain  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States.  If  this  is  not 
done,  a  naturalized  citizen  may 
find  that  he  has  lost  his  Ameri- 
can citizenship  and  may  also,  on 
account  of  the  new  percentage 


AMERICAN      CITIZENSHIP 


87 


immigration   laws,   find   it   most 
difficult  to  return  to  this  country. 

Children  Born  Abroad 

Children  born  abroad  of  Amer- 
can  parents  likewise  have  serious 
difficulties  at  times.  The  United 
States  considers  a  child  born  on 
foreign  soil  an  American  citizen 
if  its  father  was  an  American 
citizen  when  the  child  was  born, 
and  provided  the  father,  at  any 
time,  had  resided  in  the  United 
States. 

The  United  States,  however, 
will  only  give  protection  to 
such  a  child,  if,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  he  records  his  intention 
at  an  American  Consulate  of  be- 
coming a  resident  and  remaining 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States; 
and  on  reaching  the  age  of 
twenty-one  takes  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  the  United  States. 

This  American  protection  will 
not  be  given  in  all  cases. 
Suppose  such  a  child  born  in 
France  of  American  parents, 
reaches  the  military  age.  A  war 
breaks  out.  He  is  taken  by  the 
French  authorities  for  military 
service.  The  young  man  appeals 
to  the  United  States  for  assist- 
ance. He  will  find  that  the 
United  States  will  not  recognize 
his  appeal  and  will  not  step  in  to 
protect  him,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
will  say:  You  were  born  in 
France,  you  have  lived  in  France, 
you  are  under  obligations  to 
France;  do  your  duty! 

This  is  only  fair  on  our  part. 
We  have  millions  of  people  born 
in  this  country  of  foreign  par- 
ents who,  under  our  laws,  are 
considered  American  citizens 
and  who  are  liable  to  military 
duty  in  case  of  war.  If  such  in- 
dividuals claimed  the  citizenship 
of    another    country    when    war 


- 

SI  rf  i   1 

t»^ 

In  taking  down  the  flag,  as  Mrs.  Harding,  wife  of  tine 
President  of  the  United  States  is  doing,  great  care 
must  be  taken  TO  PREVENT  ANY  PART  OF  THE 
FLAG    FROIVI    TOUCHING    THE    GROUND.      Betsy 


Ross,  daughter  of  an  American  patriot,  is  said  to 
have  designed  the  ifirst  flag  of  our  country.  THE 
STARS  IN  THIS  FLAG  REPRESENT  THE  THIR- 
TEEN ORIGINAL  STATES.  Today  there  are  forty- 
eight  stars  in  the  flag,  a  star  for  each  state.  If 
Alaska,  for  example,  becomes  a  state  of  the  Union, 
another  star  will  be  added  to  the  flag.  The  number 
of    stripes    in    the    flag    rtever    change. 


88 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENt 


Naturalized  citizens  who  hold  or  recently  have  held 
public  office  in  the  United  States  may  be  numbered 
by  the  thousands.  Space  permits  the  naming  of  but 
a  few: 

1.  James  J.  Davis,  present  SECRETARY  OF  LABOR,  born 
in  Wales.  2.  Franklin  Knight  Lane,  SECRETARY  OF  THE 
INTERIOR  under  President  Wilson,  born  in  Canada.  3.  Wil- 
liam Bauchop  Wilson.  SECRETARY  OF  LABOR  under  Presi- 
dent Wilson,  born  in  Scotland.  4.  Knute  Nelson,  SENATOR 
from  Minnesota,  born  in  Norway.  5.  William  Spry,  GOV- 
ERNOR of  Utah,  born  in  England.  6.  Julius  Kahn,  CON- 
GRESSMAN from  California,  born  in  Germany.  7.  Oscar 
Solomon  Strauss,  AMBASSADOR  to  Turkey,  born  in  Bavaria. 
8.  Jacob  Gould  Schurman,  U.  S.  MINISTER  to  Greece  and 
China,  born  in  Canada.  9.  Henry  Morgenthau,  AMBAS- 
SADOR to  Turkey,  born  in  Germany.  10.  John  W.  Goff. 
JUDGE  OF  THE  SUPREME  COURT  OF  NEW  YORK,  born 
in  Ireland.  11.  Jacob  Riis.  MEMBER  OF  PARKS  AND 
PLAYGROUNDS  COMMISSION,  New  York,  born  in  Den- 
mark.    12.  James  Couzens,  MAYOR  of  Detroit,  bora  in  Canada. 


broke  out,  in  order  to  evade  mili- 
tary service  in  the  United  States, 
Uncle  Sam  would  say  to  them: 
You  were  born  in  America,  you 
are  living  in  America,  you  are 
under  obligations  to  America;  do 
your  duty  by  America! 

Rights  and  Privileges 

When  an  alien  has  become  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  what  are  his  rights 
and  privileges?  With  one  excep- 
tion, he  shares  all  the  benefits 
which  belong  to  a  native  born 
citizen.  He  can  hold  any  politi- 
cal office,  except  that  of  Presi- 
dent or  Vice  President  of  the 
United  States,  privileges  that  are 
reserved  to  the  native  born. 

All  other  political  and  civil 
privileges  are  his.  Politically, 
a  naturalized  citizen  has  the 
right  to  share  in  the  government 
through  his  vote  and  may  hold 
any  civil  service  ofBce.  He  is  en- 
titled to  American  protection  at 
home  and  abroad. 

Constitutional  Rights 

At  home  an  American  citizen 
is  constitutionally  guarded  in 
certain  fundamental  rights.  He 
has  the  right  to  free  speech, 
to  assemble,  to  make  a  petition, 
to  fair  treatment  if  accused  of  a 
crime,  to  personal  liberty,  to  con- 
trol property,  and  to  religious 
freedom. 

Rights  and  Their  Use 
Often,  however,  there  is  much 
confusion  of  thought  over  these 
constitutional  rights.  A  student, 
many  years  ago,  asked  his  school- 
master where  his  rights  began 
and  where  they  ended.  The  re- 
ply is  worth  repeating.  "  Your 
rights,"  said  the  old  teacher, 
"  end  just  where  the  other  fel- 


AMERICAN      CITIZENSHIP 


89 


low's  rights  begin."  There  is  a  truth 
in  this  reply  that  many  people  in  Amer- 
ica need  to  learn. 

Every  right  must  be  used  within  rea- 
son, with  due  regard  to  the  rights  of 
others,  and  one  may  even  add,  to  the 
rights  of  the  society  in  which  one  lives. 
The  right  to  assemble  and  to  free  speech 
does  not  mean  permission  to  hold  a 
meeting  and  address  an  audience  in  the 
middle  of  a  busy  street,  thus  blocking 
traffic.  Free  speech  does  not  carry  with 
it  the  right  to  slander  another's  reputa- 
tion. Free  speech  does  not  include  the 
right  to  advocate  the  overthrow  of  the 
government  by  riots  and  violence. 

If  the  individual  use  of  a  right  en- 
dangers the  health,  or  the  morals,  the 
peace  or  the  safety  of  others,  that  right 
may  become  license,  and  may  be 
curbed.  In  other  words,  the  full  enjoy- 
ment of  rights  in  a  democracy  calls  for 
a  great  deal  of  common  sense  and  self 
control  on  the  part  of  the  individuals 
claiming  them. 

I  The  Citizen's  Obligations 

Every  right  has  a  corresponding  obli- 
gation. Duty  should  be  stressed  as 
strictly  as  rights  in  a  democracy,  or 
democracy  will  fail.  What  are  some  of 
the  duties  which  all  Americans  should 
practice? 

Is  it  too  much  to  ask  that  a  citizen 
know  his  country's  history  and  be  proud 
of  it?  Every  citizen  should  know,  obey 
and  support  the  law.  If  he  thinks  a 
law  unjust  or  unwise,  he  should  attempt 
to  change  it  in  a  constitutional  manner. 


Every  believer  in  good  government 
should  register  and  vote,  cooperate  with 
other  citizens  in  the  public  welfare  and 
honor  and  respect  the  National  Flag. 

The  citizen  also  should  share  in  the 
common  burdens  of  his  country.  No  one 
has  the  right  to  share  in  the  common 
privileges  and  then  to  shirk  the  common 
burdens,  such  as  those  of  paying  taxes 
and  guarding  against  crime.  War  is  an- 
other common  burden.  Only  a  slacker 
accepts  the  privileges  and  the  rights  af- 
forded by  America  and  then  refuses  to 
fight  or  die  in  the  nation's  cause,  if  need 
be,  when  trouble  comes. 

The  Qualities  of  a  Good  Citizen 

Intelligence,  self  control,  and  con- 
science, are  the  three  qualities  which, 
according  to  a  great  political  writer,  are 
most  needed  in  the  citizens  of  a  democ- 
racy. A  citizen  must  be  able  to  under- 
stand the  interests  and  the  problems  of 
this  great  nation. 

A  citizen  must  be  able  and  willing  to 
subordinate  his  own  will  to  the  general 
will.  A  citizen  must  feel  his  responsi- 
bility and  be  prepared  to  make  his  coun- 
try a  better  place  to  live  in  by  helping, 
by  learning,  and  by  giving  service. 

The  United  States  has  many  great  and 
difficult  problems  to  solve.  Some  even 
claim  that  democracy  is  on  trial.  Amer- 
ica, however,  will  face  the  future  with- 
out fear  if  it  can  build  upon  citizens 
with  these  qualities — intelligence,  self 
control  and  conscience! 


PLEDGE  OF  ALLEGIANCE 

"I  PLEDGE  ALLEGIANCE  TO  MY  FLAG  AND  TO  THE  RE- 
PUBLIC FOR  WHICH  IT  STANDS;  ONE  NATION  INDIVISIBLE,  WITH 
LIBERTY    AND    JUSTICE    FOR    ALL." 


^AJUttl^wttr  'i. 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


A  POLITICAL  CAMPAIGN  IN  FULL  SWING 
Political  enthusiasm  is  a  healthy  sign 


CHAPTER  VI 


Party  Government 


A  Political  Party  Should  Live  Not  for  Itself,  but  for  the  Good  of 

the  Whole  Nation 


"  M  DIFFERENCE  OF  OPINION 
y^f  regarding  speed  makes  horse 
-^  -^  races."  Just  as  surely  it  makes 
political  parties.  Our  second  President, 
John  Adams,  put  it  more  elegantly  when 
he  said :  "  Political  parties  begin  with 
human  nature." 

As  we  have  already  learned  in  the 
preceding  chapters,  each  qualified  citi- 
zen has  the  privi- 
lege of  taking  an 
active  part  in  his 
government  by  vot- 
ing for  representa- 
tives or  by  directly 
expressing  his  ap- 
proval or  disapprov- 
al of  important 
questions.  But  no 
two  men  ever  think 
exactly  alike.  Dif- 
ferences of  opinion 
arise.  Policies  ap- 
proved by  some  vot- 
ers are  opposed  by 
others.  If  each  in- 
dividual had  his 
own  way  there 
would  be  as  many 
issues  to  decide  as 
there  are  men  to 
have    opinions.      In 

the  United  States,  where  there  are 
about  thirty  million  voters,  there  would 
be  about  thirty  million  issues ! 

Under  such  conditions  there  would  be 
much  said,  but  little  done.  Self-govern- 
ment means,  however,  the  rule  of  the 
majority ;  and  there  must  be  some  means 
found  to  find  out  the  will  of  the  major- 
ity. By  long  experience  the  people  in 
democracies  have  hit  upon  the  only 
means  of  finding  the  will  of  the  major- 
ity.    They  form  themselves  into  great 


His  Clear  Duty 


'PVERY  voter  should 
-"-^  understand  that  an 
election  is  for  the  purpose 
of  finding  which  is  to  pre- 
vail— his  point  of  view,  or 
that  of  his  neighbor  who 
differs  from  him.  Once 
a  decision  is  reached,  it  is 
the  duty  of  every  citizen 
to  abide  lawfully  by  that 
decision  until  the  time 
appointed  for  another 
election,  when  the  point 
at  issue  may  again  be 
considered 


groups,  the  members  of  which  have 
come  to  an  agreement  on  certain  com- 
monly accepted  principles.  Each  group 
has  its  own  policies  and  its  own  repre- 
sentatives which  it  wishes  to  elect  to 
office  in  order  that  its  policies  may  be 
carried  out.  These  several  groups 
struggle  for  victory  at  elections.  It 
is  agreed  that  after  the  elections  are 
over  the  policies  of 
the  successful  group 
shall  be  put  into  op- 
eration for  a  definite 
period.  It  is  after 
this  manner  that  po- 
litical parties  are 
born  and  grow  in 
power. 


Democracy  and 
Parties 

Political  parties 
are  the  certain  re- 
sult of  giving  peo- 
ple the  right  to 
think  their  own 
thoughts,  to  express 
their  opinions  pub- 
licly, and  to  control 
their  government.  In 
despotic  autocracies 
a  single  individ- 
ual, such  as  a  czar  or  a  kaiser,  or  a  small 
group  of  individuals,  decides  matters. 
In  such  governments  the  mass  of  the 
people,  in  order  to  make  their  will  felt, 
must  resort  to  revolution.  Even  mild 
criticism  of  bad  conditions  is  likely  to 
bring  serious  punishment. 

The  government  of  France  under 
Louis  XIV  had  little  regard  for  the  will 
of  the  people.  In  those  days  even  a 
slight  expression  of  displeasure  at  the 
king's  actions  was  considered  treason- 


91 


92 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


4 

1                      ^ 

1 

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1 

ll 

^p 

In  this  country  political  and  economic  questions 
have  always  been  the  great  issues  between  parties. 
Issues  based  on  religion  or  questions  between 
races  or  classes  have  never  found  favor  in  America. 
The  issues  of  the  campaign  of  1920  were  both  political 
and  economic.  WARREN  G.  HARDING,  now  our 
President,  who  is  here  seen  making  a  phonograph 
record  of  a  campaign  speech,  was  nominated  by  the 


Republican  party;  JAMES  M.  COX,  then  Governor  of 
Ohio,  was  nominated  by  the  Democratic  party. 


able  and  rebellious.  The  king 
was  the  government.  He  was 
the  law.  His  power  was  absolute 
and  supreme. 

At  present  popular  govern- 
ment is  the  rule,  and  in  popu- 
lar government  it  is  most  nat- 
ural that  groups  band  together 
in  order  to  express  themselves 
effectively.  Groups  mean  par- 
ties, and  no  democratic  country 
can  be  run  without  them.  All 
citizens  enjoying  the  voting 
privilege  have  the  right  to  com- 
bine with  others  into  a  political 
party  in  order  to  control  the  cur- 
rent policies  of  government  ac- 
cording to  their  own  views.  In 
other  words,  parties  flourish  un- 
der popular  government  because 
they  are  essential  to  democracy. 

Why  Parties  Are  Organized 

As  has  been  stated  before, 
parties  are  organized  on  account 
of  the  differences  of  opinion 
which  arise  over  important  ques- 
tions. These  opinions  may  be 
racial,  religious,  social,  political 
or  economic  in  character. 

Most  continental  European 
countries  have  religious  parties. 
Parties  of  this  character  have 
never  appealed  to  the  American 
people  and  have  not  made  much 
headway,  though  religious  ques- 
tions are  factors  in  all  parties. 
Nor  have  parties  based  on  racial 
differences  ever  developed  to 
any  great  extent  in  the  United 
States,  though  racial  differences 
often  enter  into  political  organ- 
izations and  policies. 

In  the  United  States  political 
and  economic  questions  have  been 
the  great  causes  of  party  division. 
In  the  last  election  (1920),  the 
two  issues  of  the  campaign  were 
The  League  of  Nations  (politi- 
cal), and  the  reduction  of  taxes 


PARTY      GOVERNMENT 


93 


(economic).  At  first  our  coun- 
try was  divided  over  the  ques- 
tion of  whether  the  United 
States  should  be  a  real  union, 
with  the  individual  states  sub- 
ordinated to  the  central  govern- 
ment, or  whether  the  power 
of  the  central  government 
should  be  limited,  and  the  indi- 
vidual states  allowed  to  be  al- 
most supreme  in  themselves. 
Those  who  believed  in  a  strong 
central  union  were  called  Fed- 
eralists, those  taking  the  op- 
posite view  were  called  Anti- 
Federalists.  This  difference 
of  opinion  over  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  United  States  grew 
so  intense  that  the  great 
Civil  War  was  fought  to  settle 
the  question — "  States'  Rights 
versus  the  Union."  Since  then 
it  has  been  recognized  in  the 
United  States  that  an  individual 
state,  like  Illinois  or  Alabama, 
is  a  part  of  a  great  whole,  and 
that  no  single  state,  or  group  of 
states,  has  the  right  to  withdraw 
from  the  union  of  states.  This 
was  a  victory  for  those  who  be- 
lieved in  the  Union. 

Party  Differences 

Soon  another  issue  arose  be- 
tween parties.  They  took  sides 
on  the  question  of  taxation. 
The  Republicans  believed  in  pro- 
tecting, by  means  of  a  tariff, 
American  manufacturers  from 
the  competition  of  foreign 
goods.  The  Democratic  Party 
adopted  the  policy  of  a  tariff  for 
revenue  only. 

Then,  in  1896,  still  another  is- 
sue arose.  This  time  free  silver 
was  the  great  question  over  which 
Republicans  and  Democrats 
fought.  The  Democrats,  led  by 
William  Jennings  Bryan,  favored 
free  silver,  while  President  Mc- 


The  fight  waged  by  the  two  major  parties  in  Lin- 
coin's  time  was  over  the  political  question  of  States' 
Rights.  LINCOLN  AND  DOUGLAS  DEBATED  this 
question  pro  and  con,  before  large  audiences  in  every 


part  of  the  country.  Later,  the  economic  questions 
relating  to  the  tariff  and  "free  silver"  became  the 
great  issues.     WILLIAM   JENNINGS   BRYAN,   leader 


of  the  Democrats,  and  WILLIAM  McKINLEY,  leader 
of  the  Republican's,  were  the  central  figures  in  these 
great  political  campaigns. 


94 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


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If  American  political  parties  are  not  built  on  ques- 
tions which  are  economic  or  political,  they  have 
little  chance  to  win  at  the  polls.  A  party  must  put 
forward  an  issue  that  men  and  women  OF  ALL 
CLASSES,  OF  ALL  CREEDS,  OF  ALL  RACES,  will 
approve.  There  should  be  only  one  vote — an  Ameri- 
can vote! 


Kinley  and  the  Republicans 
wished  to  keep  the  gold  standard. 
Economic  questions  of  this  char- 
acter have  largely  been  the  cause 
of  the  division  of  parties  in  the 
United  States. 

The  kinds  of  issues  upon  which 
parties  are  built  have  a  great  ef- 
fect upon  the  orderly  progress 
of  a  nation.  In  general,  parties 
based  solely  on  racial  or  religious 
questions  are  to  be  condemned. 
Such  issues  are  likely  to 
arouse  so  much  bad  feeling  as 
to  cause  serious  trouble.  Such 
problems  tend  to  settle  them- 
selves through  the  common- 
sense  of  the  individual  and  are 
best  let  alone  by  the  govern- 
ment. This  is  why  the  United 
States  Government  does  not 
officially  recognize  religious 
questions.  This  is  why  every 
individual  in  America  thinks  as 
he  pleases  on  religious  questions. 

No  Hyphen  Wanted 

Racial  groups  formed  into  po- 
litical parties  are  also  to  be  con- 
demned. There  should  be  only 
one  vote — an  American  vote! 
Every  citizen  at  the  polls  should 
think  of  himself  as  a  part  of  the 
United  States.  He  should  have 
in  mind  the  welfare  of  the  coun- 
try as  a  whole  and  not  the  selfish 
interests  of  any  particular  race. 
Nor  should  he  stir  up  problems 
foreign  to  our  interests  in  this 
country. 

Some  people  advocate  a  class 
party,  such  as  a  political  party 
made  up  solely  of  working  men 
or  business  men.  Here  again  sel- 
fish interests  are  likely  to  be- 
come so  strong  as  to  destroy  all 
thought  of  the  welfare  of  the 
country  as  a  whole.  Fortunately, 
in  America,  parties  based  on 
race,   religion,   or   class   distinc- 


PARTY      GOVERNMENT 


95 


tions,  do  not  appeal  very  strongly 
to  the  average  American  voter. 
American  political  parties,  to 
hope  for  success,  must  include 
in  their  ranks  voters  from  all 
walks  of  life,  from  all  economic 
classes,  and  from  ail  races  and 
religions. 

A  Two-Party  Government 

In  other  countries  the  tendency 
is  towards  a  number  o£  parties, 
but  in  the  United  States  the  vot- 
ers usually  group  themselves 
into  two  strong  parties,  such  as 
Republican  and  Democratic.  At 
times,  however,  other  parties 
have  sprung  up  around  spe- 
cial issues,  such  as  slavery,  pro- 
hibition, socialism  or  progres- 
sive legislation.  In  fact,  new 
ideas  are  often  best  brought 
before  the  public  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  third  party  which  cen- 
ters its  attention  upon  a  particu- 
lar problem.  Then  when  the 
idea  has  become  so  well 
known  as  to  attract  many 
voters,  it  is  either  adopted  by 
one  of  the  two  leading  parties, 
or  it  carries  its  followers  along 
until  they  are  so  strong  in  num- 
bers as  to  displace  one  of  the 
dominant  parties  as  a  national 
influence,  so  that,  in  the  end,  we 
again  have  two  leading  parties. 
The  situation  is  peculiar,  but 
United  States  history  shows  that 
we  are  wedded  to  a  two-party 
system  of  government. 

There  are  several  great  fac- 
tors which  make  party  govern- 
ment strong  in  the  United  States. 
One  is  a  need  for  some  organiza- 
tion which  will  be  responsible  for 
the  acts  of  its  candidates.  Peo- 
ple seem  more  inclined  to  support 
a  candidate  when  he  is  backed 
by  an  organization  than  when  he 
is    running    independently,    and 


Third  parties  have  sprung  up  around  issues  such 
as  Prohibition,  Socialism,  and  Slavery.  Each  party 
adopts  A  PARTY  EMBLEM.  The  Socialist,  Prohibi- 
tion and  Labor-Socialist  emblems  are  here  shown. 
The   official    emblem    of  the    Republican    Party   is   an 


Eagle,  that  of  the  Democratic  Party  is  a  five  pointed 
star.  Often  parties  are  better  known  by  their  cartoon 
emblems.  Thomas  Nast,  a  noted  cartoonist  of  Har- 
per's Weekly  (then  a  Republican  paper),  first  drew 
the    Republican    Party    as   an    ELEPHANT    and    the 


Democratic  Party  as  a  DONKEY.  The  Prohibition 
Party  has  several  cartoon  emblems:  a  pump,  a  camel 
and  a  water  wagon.  Local  parties,  too,  may  have 
cartoon  emblems.  For  instance,  the  symbol  of  the 
Democratic  Party  in  New  York  City  is  a  Tiger. 


96 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Political  parties  are  built  like  armies.  They  have 
leaders.  These  leaders  are  like  the  officers  in  an 
army — of  all  grades.  But  unlike  the  officers  of  an 
army,  the  party  leaders  do  not  issue  commands.  In- 
stead, they  seek  to  AROUSE   ENTHUSIASM   among 


the     voters;     they     attempt     to     PERSUADE     THE 
PEOPLE     to     believe     in     their     platform;     they     do 


everything  possible  to  AROUSE  CONFIDENCE  in 
their  candidates.  A  great  deal  of  work  of  this  kind 
must  be  done  to  bring  out  the  vote,  for  many  voters 
think  themselves  too  busy  to  vote.  Some  are  indif- 
ferent;  others  are  just  lazy. 


cannot  be  held  responsible  for  his 
acts.  When  a  man  presents  him- 
self as  candidate  for  the  Repub- 
lican or  Democratic  Party,  it  is 
taken  for  granted  that  the  party 
has  put  its  trade-mark  upon  him, 
and  has  made  itself  responsible 
for  his  opinions.  The  voters  are 
thus  largely  assured  of  the  stand 
the  representative  will  take  on 
questions  if  elected. 

Like  an  Army 

Political  parties  are  organized 
like  armies — there  are  privates, 
and  officers  corresponding  to 
corporals,  sergeants,  lieutenants, 
captains,  majors,  colonels,  and  a 
general. 

There  is  a  big  difference,  how- 
ever, between  an  army  and  a  po- 
litical party.  It  is  a  difference 
in  spirit.  In  an  army  a  command 
means  obedience.  If  a  group  of 
privates  refuse  to  fight,  or  if  they 
desert,  they  may  be  court- 
martialed  and  shot.  It  is  not 
so  in  a  political  party.  There 
everything  depends  upon  confi- 
dence, enthusiasm,  and  persua- 
sion. If  the  commands  of  a  po- 
litical general  in  charge  of  the 
fight  do  not  appeal  to  the  rank 
and  file,  they  can  get  another 
general,  or  vote  with  another 
party.    They  may  not  vote  at  all. 

Millions  of  voters  who  sup- 
ported President  Wilson  in  1916, 
changed  their  minds  in  1920  and 
voted  for  President  Harding  and 
his  policies.  In  1924  President 
Harding  and  the  Republican 
Party  must  again  ask  for  a  public 
endorsement  of  their  policies. 
It  is  possible  then,  as  it  always 
is  in  politics,  that  the  people  will 
swing  back  to  the  other  party. 

"VOTES,"  the  Battle  Cry 

Unlike  a  general  in  an  army, 
every   political   leader  must   at- 


PARfY      GOVERNMENT 


'^1 


tract  voters  in  order  to  keep  at 
the  head.  Only  in  proportion  as 
he  gets  votes  is  he  successful 
in  winning  elections.  This 
means  that  it  is  the  chief  duty 
of  a  political  party  to  elect  its 
own  people  to  office.  Duty 
is  the  word  to  use,  although 
some  reader  may  question  its 
use.  It  is  only  by  having  their 
own  representatives  elected  to 
office  that  a  group  of  voters 
may  have  their  policies  carried 
out.  Party  leaders  are  doing 
nothing  wrong  when  they  at- 
tempt, in  every  honest  and 
honorable  way,  to  fill  the  elective 
offices  of  the  government  with 
men  who  will  carry  their  party's 
policies  into  effect. 

Party  Machinery 

To  do  this  effectively  every 
party  requires  machinery  and 
organization.  In  the  United 
States,  with  its  one  hundred  and 
six  million  people,  a  party  must 
hold  to  its  standard  a  vast  army 
of  voters  in  order  to  be  success- 
ful. Every  party  must  have 
discipline  and  maintain  a  united 
front,  otherwise  it  will  be  de- 
feated. Candidates  must  be 
nominated ;  issues  must  be  pre- 
sented clearly;  platforms  must 
be  built.  Every  possible 
voter  must  be  registered  and  be 
at  the  polls  if  the  party  is  to 
win  on  election  day,  for,  strange 
to  say,  a  great  many  voters  act 
only  when  prodded.  If  left 
to  themselves,  many,  through 
laziness  or  indifference,  would 
never  take  the  trouble  to  express 
themselves  at  the  ballot  box. 
Such  voters  must  be  aroused  and 
fired  with  enthusiasm. 

Every  party  must  have  a 
caucus,  or  a  convention,  or  a 
primary,    in    order    to    get    its 


"VOTES"  IS  THE  BATTLE  CRY  in  a  political 
campaign.  Indeed,  Uncle  Sam  is  as  anxious  as  are 
the  leaders  of  the  parties  themselves  that  everyone 
vote  who  can.  This  cartoon,  drawn  by  Williams, 
shows  that  our  Government  believes  it  to  be  the  duty 
of  everyone  to  vote.  It  is  our  duty.  Our  representa- 
tives in  Congress,  in  the  State  Legislature,  in  the  City 


Council,  should  be  made  to  feel  that  they  are  respon- 
sible to  all  the  people,  and  not  to  a  few  who,  perhaps, 
represent  a  certain  class.  Nothing  will  make  them 
feel  this  responsibility  so  much  as  a  large  vote. 
THEODORE  ROOSEVELT  was  one  of  the  great  party 
leaders  who  could  always  bring  out  a  big  vote. 


98 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


As  regards  the  people  who  are  in  it,  a  political 
party  has  been  likened  to  an  army,  but  as  regards  its 
mechanical  structure,  it  is  like  a  pyramid.  A  politi' 
cal  party  is  built  like  a  pyramid.  At  the  top  of  the  pyra- 
mid is  the  NATIONAL  COMMITTEE,  made  up  of  a 
chairman  and  one  man  from  each  state.    This  commit- 


tee ischosen  at  the  NATIONAL  CONVENTION  which 
meets  every  four  years  to  nominate  a  president  and 
vice-president.       From    the    National    Committee,    so 


chosen,  is  picked  a  small  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE. 
This  latter  committee  carries  on  the  work  of  the 
party  between  one  presidential  election  and  another. 
At  the  base  of  the  pyramid  are  the  vast  numbers  of 
local  district  committees,  the  state  and  county  com- 
mittees, the  assembly  district,  congressional,  sena- 
torial, judicial  and  aldermanic  committees.  The  ex- 
ecutive committee  of  the  Democratic  party  in  1920  is 
here  shown. 


candidates  nominated.  All  of 
this  takes  money  and  a  great 
amount  of  it  is  required  to  carry 
on  all  branches  of  party  work. 
To  get  enough  money  requires  a 
great  deal  of  effort.  The  result 
is  that  political  parties  in  the 
United  States  have  taken  a  place 
among  the  most  elaborate  and 
most  efficient  organizations  of 
their  kind  in  the  world. 

Built  Like  a  Pyramid 

As  regards  the  people  that  are 
in  it,  a  political  party  has  just 
been  likened  to  an  army,  but  as 
regards  its  mechanical  structure, 
it  may  be  likened  to  a  pyramid. 
At  the  base  of  the  pyramid  are 
the  vast  numbers  of  local  dis- 
trict committees.  At  the  apex 
is  the  National  Committee,  com- 
posed of  a  few  men,  who  repre-^ 
sent  the  thousands  in  all  the 
divisions  of  the  party. 

The  National  Committee 

The  members  of  this  committee 
are  chosen  every  four  years  at  the 
National  Convention  of  the  party. 
One  committeeman  is  elected 
from  each  state.  This  commit- 
tee has  a  chairman  who  is  the 
business  manager  of  the  party. 
It  has  also  a  small  execu- 
tive committee.  Ordinarily  this 
chairman  and  his  executive  com- 
mittee carry  on  the  national 
activities  of  the  party  between 
the  time  of  one  presidential 
election  and  another.  One  very 
important  task  of  this  commit- 
tee is  the  selection  of  a  place 
of  meeting  for  the  national  con- 
vention which  nominates  candi- 
dates for  president  and  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States. 

The  National  Convention 

This  national  convention  meets 
once    every   four   years.      Every 


PARTY      GOVERNMENT 


99 


political  party  has  one.  It  in- 
cludes delegates  from  every 
state,  each  state  having  twice  as 
many  members  in  this  national 
convention  as  it  has  representa- 
tives and  senators  in  Congress. 
A  national  convention  usually 
numbers  about  one  thousand 
members.  In  addition  to  nomi- 
nating a  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent, the  convention  adopts  a 
party  platform  which  states  its 
policies  to  the  voters  of  the 
nation.  It  also  names  a  national 
committee  for  the  next  election. 

Each  party  also  has  a  state 
committee,  which  does  in  the 
state  about  what  the  national 
committee  do€S  in  the  nation. 
Among  the  duties  of  the  com- 
mittee is  the  calling  of  the  state 
convention  which  nominates 
state  officers  and  makes  a  state 
party  platform.  Also  it  con- 
ducts state  campaigns  and  looks 
after  the  general  welfare  of  the 
party  within  the  state. 

Each  party  also  has  county 
and  city  committees  which  at- 
tend to  local  party  interests.  All 
these  committees,  on  account  of 
their  first-hand  contact  with  the 
voter,  play  an  important  part  in 
a  political  organization.  In  the 
county  committees  are  to  be 
found  the  party  officials  of  the 
local   election  district. 

Other  Committees 

In  every  party  there  are  also 
a  number  of  other  committees, 
representing  different  govern- 
mental districts  or  groups  of 
officials,  such  as  an  assembly  ' 
district  committee,  a  judicial 
committee,  a  congressional  com- 
mittee, a  senatorial  committee,  or 
even  an  aldermanic  committee. 
Through  its  committees  and 
their  officers,  a  party  is  molded 


A  NATIONAL  CONVENTION  MAKES  HISTORY. 
At  such  a  convention  there  are  present  delegates 
from  every  state — about  1,000  delegates  in  all.  The 
rule  is  that  each  state  sends  twice  as  many  members 
as   it   has   representatives   and   senators   in   Congress. 


In  addition  to  NOMINATING  A  PRESIDENT  AND 
VICE  PRESIDENT,  the  convention  adopts  a  platform. 
This  platform  aims  to  state  the  policy  of  the  party. 
After   the   convention    is   over,   every   effort   is   made 


through  the  executive,  state,  county  and  other  com- 
mittees of  the  party  to  win  the  election,  which  is  held 
on  the  first  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in 
November,  about  four  months  after  the  National  Con- 
ventions. On  the  night  of  the  election  great  crowds 
in  all  the  cities  WATCH  FOR  THE  ELECTION  RE- 
TURNS. This  immense  crowd  is  watching  the  re- 
turns  in  Times  Square,   New  York  City. 


100 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


In  the  old  days,  THE  DESIRE  FOR  OFFICE  AND 
THE  SPOILS  OF  OFFICE,  were  likely  to  make  polit- 
ical managers  adopt  methods  in  the  campaign  that 
were  dishonest.  These  corrupt  methods  are  not  so 
common    now.    ^till    dishonest   methods   even   to-day 


i.o» 


have  a  way  of  cropping  out  in  political  campaigns. 
THE  BALLOT  BOX  MUST  AT  ALL  TIMES  BE 
CAREFULLY  GUARDED  BY  ALL  THE  CITIZENS. 
An  electorate  that  cannot  be  corrupted,  and  elections 
that  show  the  true  choice  of  intelligent  voters  are 
the  great  safeguards  of  a  democracy. 


into  a  complete  whole  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top  of  the  pyramid. 

Corrupt  Methods 

Party  zeal,  the  desire  for 
office  and  the  spoils  of  office, 
are  likely  to  make  political 
managers  look  with  leniency  on 
dishonest  methods.  Often  win- 
ning becomes  the  supreme  end 
of  the  party,  and  dishonest  means 
are  made  to  appear  justifiable. 
Partisanship  of  this  character 
was  much  worse  a  few  years 
ago  than  it  is  now.  Still  dis- 
honest methods  have,  even  to- 
day, a  way  of  cropping  out  in 
political  campaigns.  This  must 
always  be  watched  by  the  voter. 
In  former  days  corruption  and 
dishonest  methods,  especially  in 
municipal  elections,  were  com- 
mon. Voters  were  often  bribed 
openly.  The  ignorant  voters  were 
grossly  deceived  and  at  times 
threatened  with  violence,  and 
other  illegal  methods  were  fre- 
quently used  at  elections.  In 
many  cases  a  political  campaign 
became  a  battle  of  political  wits, 
each  party  attempting  to  outdo 
the  other  in  dishonesty. 

Political  rivalry  is  a  good 
thing  just  so  long  as  the  methods 
used  are  honest  and  above-board. 
Voters  may  be  attracted,  but  the 
election  must  be  free  from  cor- 
ruption. Political  enthusiasm 
is  a  healthy  sign,  but  when 
carried  to  the  point  of  dis- 
honesty it  is  better  that  the  po- 
litical party  using  these  methods 
be  defeated  at  the  polls.  No 
political  issue  is  so  important  to 
the  nation  as  to  justify  corrupt 
political  methods.  It  is  far 
better  to  have  a  poor  measure 
adopted  in  a  fair  election  than 
to  have  good  policies  adopted 
by    unfair    methods.      Fraud 


PARTY     GOVERNMENT 


101 


strikes  at  the  very  heart  of 
democracy;  it  should  never 
be  tolerated  by  the  voter. 

Winning  and  Losing  Elections 

The  spirit  with  which  parties 
in  this  country  accept  defeat  is 
most  important.  A  sportsman- 
like acceptance  of  the  verdict  of 
the  majority  at  the  polls  is  the 
sign  of  a  healthy  government. 
If  this  state  of  mind  is  not  held 
by  the  voter,  or  the  party,  pre- 
election rivalry  is  likely  to  be 
carried  over  and  lead  to  serious 
differences. 

Every  voter  should  under- 
stand that  an  election  is  for  the 
purpose  of  finding  out  which  is 
to  prevail — his  own  point  of 
view,  or  that  of  his  neighbor  who 
differs  from  him.  Once  a  deci- 
sion is  reached  it  is  the  duty  of 
every  citizen  to  abide  lawfully 
by  that  decision  until  the  time 
appointed  for  another  election, 
when  the  point  at  issue  may 
again  be  brought  up  for  con- 
sideration. As  soon  as  a  candi- 
date for  the  presidency  of  the 
United  States  is  elected,  he  be- 
comes the  President  of  us  all, 
and  as  such  should  command  the 
respect  and  loyalty  of  every  citi- 
zen. Rousseau,  the  great  po- 
litical philosopher  who  so  in- 
fluenced French  thought,  em- 
phasized this  important  point  in 
his  celebrated  book  The  Social 
Contract.  In  some  countries 
where  this  spirit  of  fairness 
is  not  clearly  understood,  the 
defeated  candidate  and  his  sup- 
porters become  a  revolutionary 
party.  In  such  a  case  democracy 
does  not  prevail,  but  anarchy. 

Issues  Should  Decide 
•  It  is  much  better  in  a  democ- 
racy to  give  support  to  a  weak 


A  political  campaign  may  ibecome  intense,  even 
bitter,  as  election  day  draws  near.  Yet,  after  the  de- 
cision of  the  voters  is  once  made  the  defeated  candi- 
dates SHOW  TRUE  SPORTSMANSHIP  by  congratu- 
lating  and   offering   assistance  to  the  victors.     It  is 


well  that  this  is  so.  In  some  countries  where  this 
principle  of  fairness  is  not  clearly  understood,  the 
defeated  candidate  and  his  supporters  become  a  revo- 
lutionary party.  In  such  a  case  democracy  does  not 
prevail,  but  anarchy.  In  the  United  States,  as  soon 
as  the  candidate  for  the  presidency  is  elected,  he 
becomes  the  PRESIDENT  OF  ALL,  and  as  such 
should  command  the  respect  and  loyalty  of  all. 


102 


Wfe      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Happily  for  this  country,  it  has  never  wanted  for 
great  leaders  in  any  crisis  in  its  national  affairs.  In 
the  dark  revolutionary  days  WASHINGTON  was  the 

great  leader.     He  is  here  shown  landing  in  New  York 


for  his  first  inauguration,  1789.  He  was  our  only 
President  who  was  unanimously  elected  by  the  people. 
Then  arose  the  great  and  wise  and  patient  LINCOLN. 
This  is  Lincoln's  cabinet.  This  body  of  men  guided 
the  nation  through  the  dark  days  of  the  Civil   War. 


A  great  leader,  whose  memory  Americans  respect, 
was  ROBERT  E.  LEE,  commander  of  the  armies  of 
the  South  in  the  Civil  War. 


official  who  is  honestly  elected, 
than  it  is  to  attempt  to  get  rid  of 
him  by  violence.  Democracy  has 
been  organized  for  the  purpose 
of  deciding  issues  by  votes  and 
reason,  not  by  force.  Of  course 
mistakes  are  made  in  democratic 
governments  just  as  they  are 
made  in  other  forms  of  govern- 
ment, but  as  the  late  Theodore 
Roosevelt  said  in  one  of  his 
campaign  speeches,  the  people  in 
a  democracy  have  the  satisfac- 
tion of  making  their  own  mis- 
takes. The  wrong  man  may  be 
elected,  the  wrong  policies  may 
be  adopted,  but  democratic  gov- 
ernment gives  us  the  privilege 
of  correcting  mistakes  and 
changing  our  officials  at  certain 
lawfully  established  times. 

The  Political  Boss 

A  political  party  that  has 
existed  for  a  long  time  or  has 
been  in  power  for  a  number  of 
years  is  in  danger  of  falling  into 
the  hands  of  a  few  men,  or  even 
one  man,  who  use  the  party  for 
selfish  ends.  Such  a  party  ex- 
ists not  so  much  as  a  means  of 
expression  for  the  voter  but  as 
an  agent  of  corruption. 

Yet  not  all  organizations  are 
evil  which  pass  into  the  hands 
of  a  single  strong  leader,  or  a 
few  leaders.  A  successful  busi- 
ness is  usually  the  product  of 
the  brains  of  one  man  who  gives 
his  whole  time  to  its  success. 
Leadership  is  harmful  only  when 
it  is  used  to  further  bad  prac- 
tices. Leadership  by  able  and 
honest  men  is  an  absolute  neces- 
sity. George  Washington,  the 
first  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  a  leader  among  men. 
Abraham  Lincoln,  a  great  party 
leader,  often  condemned   in  his 


PARTY      GOVERNMENT 


103 


day,  is  now  honored  and  revered  by 
every  American, 

A  citizen  must  always  realize  that  bad, 
dishonest  leadership  is  possible  only 
because  the  average  voter  allows  it. 
The  boss  is  crafty  and  quick  to  take 
advantage  of  the  weaknesses  o£  human 
nature.  He  holds  his  position  only 
through  the  indifference,  the  apathy, 
the  prejudices  and  weaknesses  of  the 
average  voter.  Unhindered,  he  fills  of- 
fices with  rascally  henchmen,  thereby 
strengthening  his  position.  He  counts 
on  a  certain  proportion  always  voting 
the  same  ticket,  and  on  another  group 
not  voting  at  all.  He  knows  that  many 
people  inherit  their  opinions  from  their 
parents.  He  also  knows  that  many  never 
think  for  themselves  but  accept  the 
opinions  of  those  with  whom  they  asso- 
ciate. He  realizes  that  many  people  look 
upon  their  government  as  something 
outside  of  their  every-day  life — some- 
thing that  does  not  concern  them  ex- 
cepting on  election  day  and  possibly  not 
then  unless  the  issues  are  important. 

Ask  any  man  on  the  streets  to  name 
the  officials  for  whom  he  voted  at  the 
last  election.  The  President,  the  Gov- 
ernor, the  Mayor  and  a  Senator,  he  may 
mention  without  hesitation,  but  it  is 
probable  that  he  will  not  know  the  name 
of  a  single  minor  official  for  whom  he 
voted.  He  made  his  cross  in  a  square 
opposite   an   emblem  that   stood    for   a 


ticket ;  his  not  to  reason  why!  Yet  his 
thoughtless  act  along  with  the  same  lack 
of  reasoning  on  the  part  of  thousands 
of  other  mis-called  voters,  is  the  power 
which  supports  the  corrupt  machine  and 
the  dishonest  boss. 

The  foregoing  statements  about  party 
abuses  must  not  blind  the  reader  to  the 
great  good  that  is  to  be  found  in  politi- 
cal parties.  Parties  form  one  of  the 
great  educational  forces  that  influence 
the  American  voter.  They  awaken  in- 
terest. They  stir  up  enthusiasm.  They 
spread  information  about  political  ques- 
tions. They  give  the  voter  the  oppor- 
tunity to  unite  with  others  for  effective 
action,  and  they  are  constantly  trying 
to  make  all  men  and  women  realize 
their  rights  and  obligations  as  citizens. 

This  educational  work  is  especially 
important  in  a  country  like  the  United 
States  where  there  are  so  many  differ- 
ent sections  and  people.  There  must 
be  some  binding  force.  As  yet  no  or- 
ganization has  been  developed  that  is 
equal  to  a  political  party  in  its  power 
to  unite  diversified  sections  and  people. 
Still  there  is  much  that  should  be  im- 
proved, but  to  improve  and  perfect  we 
must  work  from  the  bottom  up.  The 
important  causes  which  wreck  or  make 
political  parties  are  you,  Mr.,  Mrs.  and 
Miss  Citizen!  What  are  YOU  going  to 
do  about  it? 


"  I  know  no  South,  no  North,  no  East,  no  West  to  which  I  owe  allegiance." 

—Robert  T.  Winthrop. 

4?    4-    '1' 

"  We  join  ourselves  to  no  party  that  does  not  carry  the  flag,  and  keep 
step  to  the  music  of  the  Union." — R'ufus  Choate. 

•ir     "tc     'ir 

"  We  cannot  become  thorough  Americans  if  we  think  of  ourselves  in 
groups.     America   does   not   consist   of   groups." — Woodrow  Wilson. 

'tr     'h     ir 

"  Democracy  is  a  political  principle,  the  aim  of  which  is  that  government 
shall  not  be  controlled  by  one  class  or  group,  but  rather  by  the  whole  populace." 
—A.  S.  Sachs. 


wi*«»ii*ju\i,^ ' 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Boolh 


VOTING:  THE  GREAT  PRIVILEGE  OF  THE  CITIZEN 
The  United  States  has  today  what  is  called  a  universal   suffrage 


CHAPTER  VII 


Our  Vote  in  Government 


The  Vote  is  the  Greatest  Gift  of  the  State  to  Its  PoUtical  Children- 
Vote  at  Every  Opportunity 


OUR  VOTE  IS  OUR  VOICE  IN 
THE  GOVERNMENT.  It  is 
the  method  which  democracies 
use  to  give  to  their  qualified  citizens  a 
legal  part  in  deciding  what  the  govern- 
ment shall  do. 

Groups  of  citizens  may  hold  meetings, 
write  letters,  send  in  petitions  and 
memorials  to  their  representatives,  and 
in  many  other  ways 
express  their  opin- 
ion of  what  the 
government  is  do- 
ing. Thereby  they 
doubtless  influence 
the  government 
somewhat  through 
the  force  of  public 
opinion.  Legally, 
however,  they  de- 
cide the  course  of 
government  only 
through   voting. 

Voting  is  the 
great  privilege  of  the 
citizen.  Originally 
this  privilege  was 
granted  only  to 
those  who  were  born 
into  certain  noble 
families,  or  to  indi- 
viduals who  had 
made  much  money  or  rendered  special 
public  service.  Two  hundred  years  ago 
it  was  thought  that  only  the  noble-born 
or  the  well-to-do  had  a  right,  to  say 
what  the  government  should  do.  The 
rank  and  file  of  people  were  politically 
of  no  account.  They  could  express 
themselves  in  indirect  ways,  but  not 
legally  through  the  vote.  Gradually, 
however,  this  idea  has  been  displaced  as 
countries  have  become  more  democratic. 
To-day  the  privilege  of  voting  is  given  in 


World    Democracy 

TTISTORY  in  the  past 
-*^  has  been  written 
almost  entirely  about 
kings  and  queens  and 
lords  and  ladies  of  high 
degree  .  .  .  Now  history- 
must  be  written  in  terms 
of  the  common  man,  of 
the  man  in  the  street,  of 
the  people.  Government 
is  now  in  their  hands. 
What  the  world  will- be 
one  hundred  years  from 
now  must  be  determined 
by  the  votes  of  every-day 
men  and  women. 


the  United  States  practically  to  all  citi- 
zens over  twenty^ne  who  can  meet 
simple  demands  of  residence,  of  a  small 
tax,  education,  and  character,  asked  for 
by  the  government  of  a  state. 

What  Is  an  Electorate? 

In  the  newspapers  one  often  reads  o£ 
the  electorate,  that  is,  the  body  of  citi- 
zens legally  quali- 
fied to  vote  at  a  cer- 
tain stated  time,  in 
a  stated  way.  Such 
a  group  is  an  essen- 
tial part  of  govern- 
ment. Governments 
more  and  more  are 
putting  greater  re- 
sponsibilities upon 
their  voting  citizens, 
the  electorate,  and 
are  asking  them  to 
take  a  more  impor- 
tant part  in  govern- 
mental decisions. 

A  voter  influences 
government  in  sev- 
eral ways.  In  the 
first  place  he  is 
given  the  opportu- 
nity to  elect  the 
most  important  offi- 
cial, or  officials,  who  execute  the  law  of 
the  land.  Every  voter,  for  example,  has 
the  opportunity  of  voting,  in  the  United 
States,  for  the  electors  of  the  President 
and  Vice  President.  In  each  of  the 
forty-eight  States  of  the  Union,  he  has 
the  privilege  of  voting  for  the  Governor 
and  some  of  the  more  important  officials. 
In  cities  he  votes  for  a  Mayor,  or,  more 
often  of  late,  a  City  Commissioner. 

In  the  second  place,  a  voter  has  the 
privilege  of  choosing  those  individuals 


105 


106 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


s; 

"Shall  the  bonds  of  the  City  School  District 
of  the  City  of  Cleveland  be  issued  in  the  sum  of 
Two  Million  Dollars  ($2,000,000.)  for  the  purpose 
of  providing  buildings  for  the  public  library  of 
said  District,  for  furnishing  the  same,  and  for 
paying  the  cost  and  expense  thereof." 

= 

FOR  THE  ISSUE  OF  BONDS 

^ 

= 

AGAINST  THE  ISSUE  OF  BONDS 

= 

= 

'•In  favor  of  the  expenditure  of 
$2,000,000.00,  in  addition  to  the  proceeds 
of  the  bond  issue  of  $1,250,000.00,  here- 
tofore authorized,  for    the  purpose    of 
erecting  and  completing  a  building  for  a 
county  jail,  court  rooms  for  Insolvency 
Court,  Criminal  Court  and  Prosecuting 
Attorney's  Office.     (It  has  been  agreed 
that  about  half  the  space  in  this  building 
will  be  leased  to  the  City  of  Cleveland 
for  Central  Police  Station,  police  court, 
prosecutor's  office,  probationers'  offices 
and  other  similar  municipal  purposes.)" 

1 

s 

"Against   the   expenditure   of 
$2,000,000.00,  in  addition  to  the  proceeds 
of  the  bond  issue  of  $1,250,000.00,  here- 
tofore  authorized,  for  the    purpose  of 
erecting  and  completing  a  building  for  a 
county  jail,  court  rooms  for  Insolvency 
Court,  Criminal  Court  and  Prosecuting 
Attorney's  Offices.     (It  has  been  agreed 
that  about  half  the  space  in  this  building 
will  be  leased  to  the  City  of  Cleveland 
for  Central  Police  Station,  police  court, 
proSfecutor's  office,  probationers'  offices 
and  other  similar  municipal  purposes.)" 

The  voters  in  this  country  cast  ballots  for  Presi- 
dent, Vice  President,  governors  of  the  states,  mayors 
and  aldermen  of  the  cities,  senators  and  representa- 
tives. In  many  cases  they  vote  for  judges.  AMEND- 
MENTS TO  THE  FEDEf?AL  AND  STATE  CONSTI- 
TUTIONS are  directly   or   indirectly   referred   to   the 


1_            ^    '  au^Km^'^%iSmiijmm^^^^=^  m 

voters.  The  wisdom  of  SPENDING  LARGE  SUMS 
OF  MONEY  for  street  car  systems,  for  example,  is 
often  referred  to  the  electorate  for  decision. 


who  are  to  determine,  through 
legislation,  what  the  government 
shall  do  and  how  it  shall  be 
done.  He  chooses,  in  the  Fed- 
eral Government  of  the  United 
States,  the  senators  and  the  rep- 
resentatives. In  the  state  gov- 
ernment, he  elects  the  assembly- 
men and  the  senators  to  the  state 
legislature.  In  the  city  govern- 
ment, he  elects  the  aldermen  or 
councilmen. 

Sometimes  the  voter  also 
elects  the  people  who  are  to 
judge  his  acts.  This  privilege  is 
not  granted  in  all  cases.  In  the 
Federal  Government  this  task  is 
given  to  the  President,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  Senate. 
Most  countries  believe  that  bet- 
ter and  more  independent  judges 
can  be  secured  through  appoint- 
ment than  by  an  election.  This 
is  the  purpose  of  giving  the 
President  power  to  appoint  all 
Federal  Judges. 

In  the  state  governments  and 
local  governments,  however,  the 
voters  usually  elect  the  judges, 
although  in  some  states,  Massa- 
chusetts for  example,  they  are 
appointed  by  the  Governor. 

The  voter  not  only  elects  ex- 
ecutive, legislative  and  judicial 
representatives,  but  in  many 
cases  he  acts  directly  on  govern- 
ment policies  through  his  vote. 
Amendments  to  State  Constitu- 
tions are  often  referred  to  the 
electorate  for  decision.  The 
wisdom  of  spending  large  sums 
of  money  on  proposed  public 
works  of  a  state  or  city  is  often 
referred  to  it.  About  one-third 
of  the  States  in  the  Union  have 
accepted  the  idea  of  a  referen- 
dum whereby  decisions  on  many 
important  laws  are  referred  di- 
rectly to  the  people,  provided  a 


OUR      VOTE      IN      GOVERNMENT 


107 


sufficient  number  request  it  by 
petition,  or  the  Legislature  or 
Constitution  so   determines. 

Citizens  and  Voters 

Very  often  many  people  con- 
fuse citizenship  and  the  suffrage. 
Not  all  citizens  vote.  Some  citi- 
zens are  allowed  to  vote;  others 
are  not. 

The  Fourteenth  Amendment 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  states :  "All  persons  born 
and  naturalized  in  the  United 
States  and  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction thereof  are  citizens  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the 
states  wherein  they  reside."  This 
amendment  was  passed  in  order 
to  make  clear  that  citizenship  in 
the  United  States  is  a  national 
matter.  Citizenship  cannot  be 
bestowed  or  withdrawn  from  any 
individual  by  state  action.  Your 
citizenship  is  a  national  gift. 

But  because  you  are  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  it  does 
not  follow  that  you  have  the 
right  to  vote  wherever  you 
may  be  in  the  United  States. 
A  citizen,  to  be  able  to  vote, 
must  meet  certain  qualifications 
which  a  state  government  thinks 
necessary.  Whether  you  may 
vote  or  not  is  left  to  the  de- 
cision of  each   individual   state. 

Vote  Safeguarded 

Every  state  in  the  union  has 
thrown  safeguards  around  the 
vote.  Before  you  are  allowed  to 
vote  you  must  meet  cer.tain  tests. 
These  tests  vary  greatly  in  the 
different  states.  You  may  be  re- 
quired to  pay  a  certain  tax,  or  to 
be  of  age,  or  to  have  lived  in  a 
state,  a  county,  or  an  election  dis- 
trict for  a  definite  length  of  time. 
It  may  be  required  that  you  be 


Often  we  confuse  citizenship  and  the  suffrage. 
When  a  man  or  woman  BECOMES  A  CITIZEN  it 
does  not  follow  that  he  or  she  can  vote.     You  are  a 


citizen  OF  THE  WHOLE  UNITED  STATES,  but  one 
state  gives  you  the  right  to  vote.  Before  you  are 
allowed  to  vote  you  must  meet  certain  tests.  These 
tests  are   made  by  the  several   states.     Some  states 


y          ^'      f 

m 

- — - —            Ij^^^             • 

require  that  you  PAY  A  CERTAIN  TAX,  or  be  of 
age,  or  have  lived  in  the  state  or  election  district  a 
definite  length  of  time  or  can  read  and  write.  Tests 
vary  in  the  different  states. 


108 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


A  CENTURY  AGO  only  those  who  owned  property 
could   vote.     Now   it   is   felt  that   property   tests   ex- 


1 

'i^^^'M 

Hi 

elude  the  working  man  and  place  the  control  of  the 
Government  in  the  hands  of  the  rich.  Everyone  will 
admit  CHILDREN  SHOULD  NOT  VOTE.  In  coun- 
tries with   many  immigrants,  where  there  are   large 


numbers  of  NEWLY-NATURALIZED  VOTERS  each 
year,  it  is  felt  that  an  individual  should  live  in  a  state 
and  in  a  certain  district  within  the  state  a  definite 
length  of  time  before  he  can  vote. 


able  to  read  and  write  and  meet 
certain  moral  and  mental  tests. 

Property  Qualifications 

It  has  already  been  stated  that 
a  century  ago  only  those  indi- 
viduals holding  property  were 
thought  to  have  a  permanent  in- 
terest and  thus  a  share  in  gov- 
ernment. In  those  days  the  privi- 
lege of  voting  was  limited  to 
those  who  held  a  certain  amount 
of  property,  or  possibly  to  those 
who  paid  so  many  dollars  in  rent. 
Such  qualifications,  in  America, 
have  almost  entirely  been  done 
away  with.  It  is  {elt  that  prop- 
erty tests  exclude  the  working 
man  and  place  the  control  of  the' 
government  in  the  hands  of  the 
well-to-do,  thereby  making  gov-^ 
ernment  a  class  matter.  In  some 
states,  however,  a  poll  tax  still_ 
remains  a  voting  requirement. 
Such  a  tax  is  a  direct  charge  of 
one  to  three  dollars,  usually 
levied  upon  each  citizen. 

Age  Qualifications 

Everyone  will  admit  that  chil- 
dren should  not  vote,  since  their 
minds  are  not  developed.  Also 
their  interests  are  looked  after  by 
their  fathers  and  mothers.  Some 
age  must  be  fixed  upon  as  the 
legal  age  for  voting.  This  age 
in  practically  all  countries  has 
been  set  at  twenty-one. 

Residence  Qualifications 

In  the  United  States,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  the  South  Amer- 
ican States,  and  Canada,  where 
the  population  is  constantly  mov- 
ing and  changing  on  account  of 
immigration  and  travel,  where 
there  are  large  numbers  of 
newly-naturalized  voters  each 
year,  it  is  felt  that  an  individual 
should  live  in  a  state  and  in  a 


OUR     VOTE     IN     GOVERNMENT 


109 


certain  district  within  the  state 
a  definite  length  of  time  before 
voting.  Such  a  period  of  resi- 
dence is  required  in  all  states  of 
the  United  States.  In  New  York 
before  voting  the  citizen  must 
live  thirty  days  in  his  election 
district,  four  months  in  the 
county,  and  one  year  in  the  state. 

Sex  Qualifications 

Women,  up  to  very  recent 
times,  could  not  vote.  Their 
interests,  it  was  felt,  were 
looked  after  sufficiently  by 
their  husbands  or  fathers  or 
other  male  members  of  the 
family.  Many  women,  especially 
those  in  business  or  working  in 
factories,  were  dissatisfied.  In 
consequence  agitation  was  car- 
ried on  for  many  years  to  secure 
the  vote.  Gradually  state  after 
state,  at  first  principally  the 
western  states,  granted  this  priv- 
ilege. The  Nineteenth  Amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  became  law  after 
three-quarters  of  the  states  had 
ratified  it. 

Other  Qualifications 

None  will  deny  that  criminals, 
lunatics  and  idiots  should  be 
denied  the  right  to  vote.  Less 
clear,  however,  is  the  need 
for  educational  tests,  such  as 
reading  and  writing,  for  which 
there  seems  to  be  an  increasing 
demand.  It  is  thought  that  the 
ability  to  read  and  write  is  some- 
thing which  every  voter  should 
have.  How  can  an  illiterate  per- 
son read  the  news  or  otherwise 
gain  the  knowledge  required  to 
vote  intelligently  on  election 
day?  A  number  of  states — 
Massachusetts  and  New  York 
are  good  examples — require  such 
qualifications.       When    all     the 


The  following  photographs  show  the  steps  taken  by 
a  voter  when  casting  his  ballot.  They  were  made 
under  the  direction  of  the  President  of  the  New  York 
City  Board  of  Elections,  John  R.  Voorhis.  This  pic- 
ture gives  a  general  view  of  the  INSIDE  OF  A  POLL- 
ING PLACE.     Here  is  shown  a  "close  up"  view  of 


the    ELECTION    OFFICIALS   who   must  be   present 

when  the  votes  are  being  cast.     When  a  voter  enters 


m^ 

-^^ 

"^•r  rum 

^^^^m 

S 

^^^Hi" ' '  M 

^. 

'^  jjUj^^^^^^^^^^^^i 

a  polling  place  HE  MAY  BE  CHALLENGED  by  a 
voter  or  by  any  election  official.  If  challenged,  he 
must  give  all  information  requested  by  an  Inspector 
of  Elections.  This  information  must  tally  with  that 
which  he  gave  about  himself  on  Registration  Day, 
and  which  then  was  recorded  in  a  book  called  Regis- 
ter of  Electors. 


110 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


The  voter  then  MUST  SIGN  HIS  NAME  in  the 
Register  of  Electors'  book.  His  signature  is  compared 
by  an  election  official  to  the  sign'^ture  that  he  made 


on  registration  day.  if  the  election  officials  are  sat- 
isfied that  the  man  is  entitled  to  a  vote,  he  is  then 
HANDED   A    BALLOT.     Then    he   GOES    INTO  THE 


1       ^ 

f^-j^j^mmmmA  ^    ^.. 

K 

i^^^Hj^ 

H 

^^^^HK*"''^' 

I^^^^Hf 

^^^^aJ 

^^^^HVBWV'*- 

^^^^^ilii 

VOTING  BOOTH  alone.  The  voter  must  mark  his 
ballot  with  a  black  crayon  pencil — one  is  always 
found  in  the  booth.  If  he  uses  his  fountain  pen  or  a 
colored  pencil  to  mark  his  ballot,  his  vote  becomes 
void.  If  he  makes  a  mistake  in  marking  his  ballot  he 
must  not  erase.     He  should  ask  for  another  ballot. 


qualifications  have  been  met  the 
voter  acquires  the  legal  right  to 
exercise  the  privilege  of  voting. 

The  Widening  of  the  Suffrage 

Despite  the  fixing  of  these 
tests,  all  of  which  prevent  the 
unfit  from  voting,  the  past  cen- 
tury brought  great  changes.  It 
was  a  period  which  began 
with  the  few  who  might 
vote,  and  ended  with  the  day 
when  practically  everybody  over 
twenty-one  years  of  age  has  the 
privilege.  In  the  United  States 
at  the  time  of  the  Revolution 
voting  was  very  much  restricted. 
It  is  estimated  that  at  that  time 
only  one  person  in  thirty  could 
vote,  although  in  Massachusetts 
about  one  in  fifteen  had  the  fran- 
chise. By  1870  all  men  who  met 
certain  simple  qualifications  had 
the  privilege.  At  the  present 
time  women,  as  well  as  men,  ex- 
ercise this  privilege.  Restric- 
tions have  one  by  one  been  taken 
off,  until  we  have  what  is  called 
a  universal  suffrage.  Today 
more  than  one  out  of  every  four 
people  in  the  United  States  are 
eligible  to  vote. 

What  is  true  of  the  United 
States  is  also  true  of  the  world. 
One  hundred  and  twenty-five 
years  ago  there  were  only  a  few 
countries  in  the  world  where 
people  had  the  privilege  of  elect- 
ing their  own  representatives 
The  United  States  was  the  out- 
standing example.  Gradually 
the  principle  of  the  right  of  peo- 
ple to  decide  political  questions 
for  themselves  and  to  elect  repre- 
sentatives who  will  carry  on  gov- 
ernment according  to  the  popu- 
lar will  have  been  extended,  un- 
til today  the  large  majority  of 
the  governments  of  the  world 
are  run  in  this  manner. 


OUR      VOTE      IN      GOVERNMENT 


111 


This  is  a  tremendous  world  re- 
sponsibility for  the  citizen  to 
carry.  It  is  a  dream  that  people 
have  hoped  for  and  looked  for- 
ward to  for  many  centuries. 
History  in  the  past  has  been 
written  almost  entirely  about 
kings  and  queens,  and  lords  and 
ladies  of  high  degree.  Kingdoms 
and  oligarchies  and  aristocracies, 
and  other  despotic  forms  of  gov- 
ernment long  held  the  center  of 
attention.  Now  history  must  be 
written  in  terms  of  the  common 
man,  of  the  man  in  the  street,  of 
the  people.  Government  now  is 
in  their  hands.  What  the  world 
will  be  one  hundred  years  from 
now  must  be  determined  by  the 
votes  of  every-day  men  and 
women,  not  by  the  decisions  of 
autocrats  or    oligarchies. 

Registration 

In  order  to  vote,  a  citizen  must 
register,  must  have  his  name 
placed  among  the  legally  quali- 
fied voters.  This  registration  is 
taken  as  a  measure  of  pre- 
caution. If,  on  election  day, 
everyone  who  wished  to  vote 
just  went  to  the  polls  without 
any  system  to  identify  him,  such 
as  registration  gives,  it  would  be 
very  difficult  for  the  election  offi- 
cials in  charge  of  the  polls  to 
prevent  illegal  voting.  To  in- 
vestigate the  qualifications  of  the 
voters  at  such  a  busy  time  would 
cause  much  confusion  and  wrang- 
ling and  untold  delay. 

Some  Voting  Regulations 

In  some  states  the  list  of  quali- 
fied voters  is  made  up  before 
election  day  by  a  group  of  offi- 
cials, such  as  the  selectmen  of  a 
town.  In  other  states,  and  this 
is  true  of  most  of  them  today, 
an     individual     must     register. 


In  the  voting  booth  he  MARKS  HIS  BALLOT  IN 
SECRET.  No  one  can  know  how  he  votes.  This 
matter  of  secrecy  is  very  important.     If  a  voter  had 


to  mark  his  ballot  in  the  open  or  tell  the  election 
officials  how  he  wished  to  vote,  an  attempt  might  be 
made  to  force  ihim  to  vote  against  his  desire.  After 
the  voter  has  marked  his  ballot  he  comes  out  of  the 
booth  and  HANDS  HIS  FOLDED  BALLOT  TO  AN 
ELECTION  OFFICIAL. 


112 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


An  election  official,  then,  in  the  presence  of  the 
voter,  tears  off  the  stub  of  the  ballot  and  DEPOSITS 
THE  STUB  IN  ONE  BOX  AND  THE  BALLOT  IN 
ANOTHER  BOX.  When  the  votes  are  counted,  the 
number  of  stubs  must  equal   the   number  of  ballots. 


In  election  districts  where  VOTING  MACHINES  are 
used,  the  process  of  voting  is  the  same,  but  instead 
of  marking  a  ballot,  the  voter  operates  a  machine. 
This,  too,  is  done  in  secret.  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt, 
Democratic  nominee  for  Vice  President  in  the  elec- 
tion of  1920,  is  here  seen  about  to  operate  a  voting 
machine. 


personally,  before  an  election 
board,  or  registrar  of  voters,. 
that  is,  he  must  appear  before 
certain  officials,  appointed  by  the 
government,  and  give  his  name,, 
address,  length  of  residence  in 
the  district,  occupation,  citizen- 
ship, and  any  other  particulars 
which  may  be  asked  for.  It  is 
also  necessary  that  he  sign  his 
name  in  the  registration  book. 
All  statements  are  verified  be- 
fore the  election  takes  place. 
In  the  larger  cities  the  police 
go  from  door  to  door  with  the 
list  of  registered  voters  in  order 
to  find  out  if  false  statements 
have  been  made. 

In  large  cities,  where  illegal 
voting  is  less  easily  detected 
than  in  country  districts,  a  voter 
may  be  required  to  register  every 
year.  In  country  districts,  one 
single  registration  may  do  as 
long  as  the  voter  lives  in  that 
district.  This  is  possible  because 
the  voter  is  known  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. 

The  Secret  Ballot 

The  manner  in  which  a  citizen 
records  his  choice  at  the  polls  is 
very  important.  On  the  day  of 
election  a  citizen  must  have  his 
right  to  vote  verified  before  he 
is  allowed  to  enter  the  voting 
booth,  and,  in  some  states,  as  a 
final  step  he  must  sign  his  name 
in  the  poll  book  so  that  his  signa- 
ture may  be  compared  with  the 
one  he  made  in  the  registra- 
tion book  on  a  previous  day. 
After  satisfying  the  election  of- 
ficials that  he  is  qualified  to  vote, 
he  is  then  given  an  official  ballot. 

This  matter  of  secrecy  is  very 
important  to  the  individual  voter. 
If  you  had  to  mark  your  ballot 
in  the  open  or  tell  the  election 
officials  how  you  wished  to  vote. 


OUR      VOTE      IN      GOVERNMENT 


113 


an  attempt  might  be  made  to 
induce  you  to  vote  contrary  to 
your  desire.  Today  no  one 
knows  how  you  vote.  This  is 
your  own  personal  business.  The 
introduction  of  the  official  secret 
ballot  marks  great  progress  in 
the  holding  of  fair  and  honest 
elections. 

More  Polling  Regulations 

After  the  voter  has  selected  his 
candidates  and  made  the  proper 
voting  marks,  he  must  fold  his 
ballot  and  hand  it  to  an  election 
official.  As  this  official  takes 
the  ballot  he  tears  a  stub  from 
it  and  places  the  stub  in  one  box 
and  the  ballot  in  another.  The 
number  of  the  stubs  and  the  bal- 
lots must  correspond  at  the  final 
counting  of  the  votes.  This 
makes  it  almost  impossible  to 
stuff  the  ballot-box. 

There  are  many  other  precau- 
tions taken  against  the  use  of  dis- 
honest methods  at  the  polls. 
Every  state  has  them.  Two  stand 
out  more  prominently  than  the 
rest:  party  workers  are  not  al- 
lowed to  approach  voters  within 
a  restricted  area  about  the  polls, 
and  only  a  definite  number  of 
party  watchers  may  be  present 
when  the  votes  are  being  counted. 
Of  course  it  is  understood  that 
every  election  official  must  keep 
strictly  to  election  laws,  or  be 
subject  to  prosecution.  Abuses 
sometimes  crop  up,  but  every- 
thing considered,  an  election  in 
the  United  States  today  is  fairly 
and  honestly  conducted. 

Kinds  of  Ballots 

These  official  ballots  may  be 
made  up  in  many  different  ways. 
How  they  are  made  up  is  an  ex- 
tremely important  matter  to  the 
voter.     Generally  there  are  two 


A   voter   cannot    operate    a    machine    until    he    has 
pulled  the  lever  that  CLOSES  THE  CURTAIN.     He 


casts  his  ballot  by  PULLING  DOWN  A  SMALL 
LEVER  underneath  the  name  of  the  candidate  for 
whom  he  wishes  to  vote. 


114 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


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A  modified  official  IVIASSACHUSETTS  BALLOT  is 
here  shown.  In  New  York  State  the  party  emblem  is 
printed  opposite  the  name  of  the  candidate.  For  the 
intelligent  voter,  this  makes  it  easier  to  vote  a  split 
ticket;  that  is,  to  vote,  let  us  say,  for  a  Republican 
Governor,  a  Democratic  Lieutenant-Governor,  and  an 
Independent  or  Socialist  Mayor.  This  ballot,  how- 
ever, makes  it  hard  for  a  voter  to  vote  a  straight 
ticket,  that  is,  for  all  the  candidates  of  one  party,  as 
he  has  to  hunt  among  a  great  many  names  to  find  the 
right  party  candidates.  This  form  of  ballot  is  gen- 
erally used  in  local  elections. 


main  ways  of  arranging  the 
names  of  the  candidates  and  the 
positions  for  which  they  are  run- 
ning. One  of  the  most  popular 
forms,  commonly  called  The 
Massachusetts  Ballot,  is  arranged 
according  to  the  offices  for  which 
the  candidates  are  running.  In 
other  words,  the  names  of  all 
candidates  for  governor  are 
placed  one  after  the  other,  either 
in  alphabetical  order,  or  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  drawn 
for  position  Beginning  with 
the  highest  office,  each  group  of 
candidates  is  then  arranged  in 
the  order  of  its  importance. 

The  voter,  in  making  a  choice, 
must  first  look  for  the  office,  such 
as  Governor,  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor, Comptroller,  Mayor,  or 
Alderman;  then  read  the  names 
under  each  position  in  order  to 
find  out  the  candidate  for  whom 
he  desires  to  cast  his  vote.  This 
method  must  be  followed  for 
all  the  positions  to  be  filled,  and 
an  "  X  "  must  be  marked  at  the 
side  of  each  name  voted  for. 

A  Split  Ticket 

A  ballot  of  this  character  is  a 
very  difficult  matter  for  the  un- 
educated voter  to  use  success- 
fully. Such  a  voter  has  great 
difficulty  in  voting  a  straight 
ticket,  that  is  for  all  the  Repub- 
lican, or  all  the  Democratic,  or 
all  the  Socialist  candidates,  as 
he  has  to  hunt  among  a  great 
many  names  to  find  the  right 
party  candidates.  For  the  in- 
telligent voter  such  a  ballot 
makes  it  easy  to  vote  a  split 
ticket;  that  is,  to  vote,  let 
us  say,  for  a  Republican  Gov- 
ernor, a  Democratic  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  and  an  Independent 
Mayor. 


OUR      VOTE      IN      GOVERNMENT 


115 


Illustration  of  Ballots 

Another  ballot,  possibly  more 
popular  than  the  Massachusetts 
Ballot,  is  what  may  be  called 
the  Party  Column  Ballot.  This 
ballot  is  used  in  a  great  many 
states.  It  is  arranged  accord- 
ing to  party;  that  is,  the  col- 
umns of  names  run  down  the 
ballot,  each  separate  column  con- 
taining the  names  of  the  candi- 
dates of  a  particular  party.  At  the 
top  of  each  column  is  the  party 
emblem  with  a  circle  underneath. 
The  voter  may  vote  in  one  of 
two  ways.  He  may  cast  a  straight 
ballot  by  making  an  "  X  "  in  the 
circle,  or  he  may  split  his  ticket 
by  marking  an  "  X  "  at  the  side 
of  the  name  of  each  official  for 
whom  he  wishes  to  vote. 

This  form  of  ballot  is  the  best 
for  a  person  who  wishes  to  vote 
a  straight  ticket.  It  is  good  for 
the  illiterate  or  uneducated  voter. 
He  simply  puts  his  cross  in  the 
circle  and  votes  correctly.  It  is 
also  best  for  the  staunch  party 
voters  who  wish  to  vote  a  straight 
party  ticket. 

A  third  form  of  ballot  now 
very  common  is  a  combination  of 
the  two  forms  just  described. 
The  arrangement  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Massachusetts  Ballot, 
but  each  name  is  preceded  by  the 
party  emblem  so  that  even  an 
illiterate  voter  can  mark  his  bal- 
lot correctly.  In  every  election 
many  ballots  are  thrown  out  be- 
cause the  individual  voter  has 
not  followed  directions.  A  good 
ballot  is  one  that  reduces  this 
possibility  to  a  minimum. 

Becoming  a  Member  of  a  Party 

The  voter's  task  is  not  com- 
pleted when  he  votes  on  election 
day.  He  is  extended  the  privi- 
lege of  doing  his  share  in  the 


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A  PARTY  COLUMN  BALLOT,  which  is  here 
shown,  is  an  ideal  ballot  for  the  staunch  party  man. 
All  the  candidates  for  a  certain  party  are  run  under 
the  party  emblem.  To  vote  a  straight  party  ticket  all 
the  voter  has  to  do  is  to  mark  an  "X"  in  the  circle 
under  the  party  emblem.  This  form  of  ballot  is 
not  so  easy  for  those  voters  who  wish  to  vote  a 
split  ticket.  This  is  the  form  of  iballot  that  is  used 
throughout  the  whole  country  for  Presidential  Elec- 
tions. In  these  elections,  tickets  are  not  split  by  the 
voters  to  the  extent  that  they  are  in  local  elections. 
Most  voters  usually  want  to  see  the  party  win,  and 
hence  vote  a  straight  party  ticket.  .  .  .  For  many 
reasons  it  is  desirable  that  a  voter  become  a  member 
of  a  political  party  and  even  become  a  worker  in  it. 


116 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


ASSOCIATE  JUDGE  OF  THE  COURT 
IST'Vote  for  one!       OF  APPEALS. 


WILLIAM  S,  ANDREWS Republican 


TOWNSEND  SCUDDER Democratic 


HEZEKIAH   D.  WILCOX Socialist 


The  voter  must  take  care  to  see  that  he  marks  all 
sections  of  his  ballot  properly,  otherwise  it  will  be 
thrown  out.  The  first  illustration  shows  A  COR- 
RECTLY   MARKED    BALLOT.      The   "X"    is    in   the 


I^^Vote  for  one! 


MAYOR. 


HENRY  H.   CURRAN Republican 


JOHN   F.   HYLAN. 


EX 


Democratic 


JACOB  PANKEN Socialist 


JEROME   T.   DEHUNT Farmer-Labor 


GEORGE  K.  HINDS.  .^ Prohibition 


JOHN  P.  QUINN Social  Ubor 


JOSEPH  DANA  MILLER Single  Tax 


proper  place — in  the  square  opposite  the  party  em- 
blem. THE  NEXT  BALLOT  WOULD  BE  THROWN 
OUT.  The  'X"  is  not  in  the  proper  place  and  voids 
the  entire   ballot  for   ALL   offices.     The   third    ballot 


I^^Vote  for  one!           COMPTROLLER.                    3  | 

i 

^ 

X 

CHARLES  C.  LOCK  WOOD Republican 

• 

X 

CHARLES  L.  CRAIG Democratic 

I 

HARRIOT  STANTON  BLATCH Socialist 

J4m 

BEN  HOWE Farmer-Labor 

A 

JOHN  McKEE Prohibition 

<s 

E.  A.  ARCHER Social  Labor 

^«xxxx 

» 

EDWARD    LINDGREN Workers'  League 

1 

1 

GEORGE  R.  MACEY Single  Tax 

IS  MARKED  INCORRECTLY,  for  the  voter  has 
voted  for  TWO  candidates  when  he  should  have 
voted  for  just  ONE  and  the  officials  are  compelled  to 
void  this  ballot  for  office  of  Comptroller  ONLY. 


running  of  a  political  party. 
Many  voters  neglect  this  duty. 
There  is  little  use  in  criticising 
party  government,  or  regretting 
the  fact  that  there  is  little  differ- 
ence between  candidates  except 
in  the  degrees  of  their  dishon- 
esty, if  we  fail  to  do  our  share 
in  party  government.  However, 
to  become  a  party  member  a  citi- 
zen must  meet  certain  tests.  In 
some  states  the  test  of  party 
affiliation  used  to  be  left  to  the 
decision  of  the  party  managers 
who  were  given  the  power  to 
make  up  the  list  of  eligible 
party  voters.  Such  a  method,  of 
course,  gives  the  central  organi- 
zation committee  control  over 
the  party  organization. 

Party  membership  in  most 
states  is  now  regulated  by  law. 
In  some  states  a  simple  declara- 
tion to  the  effect  that  you  belong 
to  a  party  is  enough.  In  others 
the  act  of  voting  at  a  primary  is 
all  that  is  necessary  to  make  you 
a  member  of  a  party.  In  others, 
again,  the  voter  is  required  to 
give  his  party  affiliation  when  he 
registers  at  the  primaries,  and 
from  this  record  the  lists  of  the 
enrolled  party  voters  are  made. 

Open  and  Closed  Primary 

There  are  two  kinds  of  prima- 
ries; the  Closed  and  the  Open. 
In  the  closed  primary  the  voter 
must  declare  to  which  party  he 
belongs  and  vote  only  the  ticket 
of  the  party.  In  the  open 
primary  he  has  the  privilege  of 
voting  in  secret  for  which  ever 
party  he  chooses. 

As  a  legally  recognized  mem- 
ber of  a  party,  the  individual 
may  vote  in  the  party  primaries 
for  the  candidates  who  are  run- 
ning for  office,  and  at  the  same 
time  he  may  vote  for  those  repre- 


OUR      VOTE      IN      GOVERNMENT 


117 


sentatives  of  the  party  who  carry 
on  the  party  organization.  These 
are  very  important  duties,  al- 
though they  are  not  generally 
so  considered  by  the  average 
voter.  Your  county  committee- 
man, for  example,  is  often  elected 
by  a  very  few  voters.  He  is, 
however,  an  official  of  conse- 
quence, being  concerned  very 
largely  with  the  building  of 
party  organization  policies. 

Intelligent  Voters 

Although  good  government  de- 
pends upon  a  large  group  of 
active  and  intelligent  voters,  one 
of  the  great  difficulties  in  all 
democratic  countries  is  the  task 
of  keeping  the  voter  on  the  job. 
Generally  the  interest  at  a  Presi- 
dential Election  is  great  enough 
to  bring  out  a  record  vote,  pos- 
sibly as  much  as  seventy-five  to 
ninety  or  even  ninety-five  per 
cent  of  all  the  voters;  but  in 
local  elections  interest  often  les- 
sens so  that  the  percentage  of 
votes  cast  runs  from  fifty  to  as 
low  as  ten  per  cent  of  the  pos- 
sible voters.  Yet  these  local 
officials  are  of  the  first  impor- 
tance for  they  decide  matters 
which  touch  our  daily  lives. 

Lack  of  interest,  especially  in 
local  elections,  tends  to  throw  a 
party  into  the  hands  of  machine 
men,  and  is  one  of  the  main 
causes  of  corrupt  boss  rule.  A 
lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of 
the  mass  of  voters  in  a  demo- 
cratic country  is  unfortunate, 
since  democracy  must  depend 
upon  its  voters. 

Compulsory  Voting 

Many  remedies  have  been  sug- 
gested to  bring  the  voters  out  on 
election  day.  In  a  few  nations 
voting  has  been  made  compul- 
sory.   In  Belgium  and  Spain  the 


JUSTICES   OF  THE   SUPREME 
COURT  rOR  THE  SECOND 
I^^Vote  for  two!      JUDICIAL  DISTRICT. 


HARRY  E.  LEWIS Republican 


FRANK  S.  GANNON,  Jr Republican 


MITCHELL  MAY Democratic 


WILLIAM  F.  HAQARTY Democratic 


JOSEPH  A.  WHITEHORN Socialist 


A  like  mistake  has  been  made  in  tiiis  ballot.  The 
voter  has  VOTED  FOR  THREE  CANDIDATES  when 
only  TWO  are  allowed.  Thus  this  iballot  for  Jus- 
tices of  the  Supreme  Court  is  made  void.     The  fifth 


50000000 
"  "  ><>ooo<> 
. . 600000 

&0000000 


PRESIDENT  OF  THE  BOROUGH 
11^=' Vote  for  one!  OF  QUEENS. 


8 


.  0000 
-  -  -  00000 
00000000 

•■ooooo 


)( 


ooooooooo 


m 


000000000c 

0000000000000c 

0000000000000c 


EDQAR   F.  HAZLETON Republican 


MAURICE  E.  CONNOLLY Democratic 


BARNET  WOLFF Socialist 


HERMAN  DEFREM Farmer-Labor 


JOHN  W.  MOORE Prohibit! 


FRED   HESSE S-Cent  Fare 


ballot  would  not  be  counted  because  THE  "X"  IS 
ON  THE  LINE  instead  of  in  the  square.  A  voter  is 
permitted  to  vote  for  parties  not  on  the  ballot.     He 


15^ Vote  for  one! 


COUNTY  JUDGE. 


HENRY  G.  WENZEL.  Jr Republican 


BURT  JAY  HUMPHREY Democratic 


LOUIS   ROEPER Socialist 


^^«<^^cWU^ 


can  do  this  by  WRITING  IN  THE  NAME  OF  HIS 
CANDIDATE  in  space  left  for  this  purpose.  Note 
that  where  two  or  three  votes  are  to  be  cast  on  any 
one  ballot,  a  corresponding  number  of  blanks  are  left 
to  fill  in  names.  A  voter  who  uses  anything  but  a 
crayon  PENCIL  WITH  BLACK  LEAD  in  marking  his 
ballot  will  not  have  his  vote  counted. 


118 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


America,  through  the  government  of  the  states 
and  municipalities,  and  the  encouragement  of  the 
National  Government,  aims  to  meet  the  educational 
needs  of  all  its  citizens.  The  school  system  extends 
from  the  Kindergarten  through  THE  ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOL,  High  School,  Normal  School,  and  Municipal 


and  State  University.  To  better  meet  the  needs  of 
the  times,  encouragement  is  being  given  to  the  de- 
velopment of  Junior  High  Schools  and  DAY  AND 
EVENING    VOCATIONAL    OR    TRADE    SCHOOLS, 


and  to  the  introduction  or  development  of  courses  in 
instruction  for  the  foreign  born,  especially  in  AMERI- 
CAN   CITIZENSHIP. 


individual  who  neglects  to  vote 
is  fined  or  has  his  taxes  in- 
creased, or,  if  the  offense  is  re- 
peated, he  loses  his  political 
rights.  Some  people  urge  pass- 
ing such  a  law  in  the  United 
States.  Such  a  plan,  however, 
has  never  received  popular  ap- 
proval in  this  country,  and  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  could  be  made  gen- 
erally effective. 

When  a  democracy  has  to  com- 
pel its  voters  to  go  to  the  polls, 
something  is  radically  wrong. 
Would  an  unwilling  voter  cast 
his  vote  either  intelligently  or 
loyally?  Only  an  intelligent, 
active,  enthusiastic  citizenship, 
voting  without  compulsion,  can 
make  an  efficient  democracy.  A 
burning  desire  to  vote  on  the 
part  of  each  voter  is  the  first 
essential  of  good  government. 

Education 

Democracy  depends  upon  a 
great  group  of  voters,  an  elector- 
ate, who  are  educated  to  the 
needs  of  government.  Thorough 
education  must  go  hand  in  hand 
with  the  vote.  In  the  United 
States,  giving  the  vote  to  all  men 
and  women  over  twenty-one 
years  of  age  carries  with  it  many 
problems  for  American  democ- 
racy. A  democracy  where  the 
rank  and  file  of  voters  are  ig- 
norant and  prejudiced  will  fail. 

Some  students  of  politics 
claim  that  a  democracy  cannot 
be  successful  where  twenty-five 
per  cent,  of  the  voters  are  illit- 
erate. America  depends  upon  an 
educated  body  of  citizens  who 
can  understand  the  many  pro- 
posals made  to  them;  who  can 
see  the  mistakes  which  often  lie 
back  of  many  glittering  schemes 
that  fool  the  ignorant.  In  a 
democratic  state  nothing  pays  so 


OUR      VOTE      IN      GOVERNMENT 


119 


well  as  education.  All  citizens  should 
give  their  entire  support  to  the  upbuild- 
ing of  the  best  possible  school  system, 
and  should  never,  through  false  econ- 
omy, be  led  to  support  any  policy  which 
will  break  down  the  educational  progress 
of  the  nation. 

The  Supreme  Task 

The  schools  are  the  bulwark  of  this 
Democracy.  Upon  their  foundation  is 
placed  the  responsibility  of  training 
future  American  citizens.  The  leaders 
of  our  educational  forces  realize  this 
fact.  They  are  placing  more  and  more 
emphasis  on  citizenship  training.  Civics 
in  many  states  is  a  required  course  of 
study  in  the  schools.  Special  citizen- 
ship teachers  are  being  trained;  even- 
ing schools  are  rapidly  increasing  in 
number,  and  on  every  hand  is  found  a 
renewed  interest  in  this  supreme  task 
of  the  public  schools, — the  training  of 
American  citizens. 

For  this  reason,  America  spends  on 
its  schools  more  money  than  on  any  other 
part  of  its  governmental  activities.  These 
schools,  paid  for  by  the  taxes  of  all  the 
people,  serve  this  great  nation  by  train- 
ing men,  women  and  children  to  appreci- 
ate their  privileges  and  to  carry  their 
obligations  as  citizens. 

Evening  Schools 

In  many  cases,  girls  and  boys  are 
forced  to  leave  school  at  the  end  of  their 
elementary  school  training.  For  these, 
and  for  the  adults  who  have  never  had 
an  opportunity  to  secure  an  education, 
evening  schools  are  provided.  Splendid 
public  libraries,  second  in  importance 
only  to  the  schools,  also  give  facilities 
for  free  information  and  education.  In 
America  the  advantages  of  learning  are 
not  limited  to  any  age  or  to  any  sex. 
Any  man,  woman,  or  child  will  find  some 
school  to  meet  his  or  her  particular 
need.  No  nation  in  the  world  has  pro- 
vided its  citizens  with  more  educational 
opportunities  than  are  to  be  found  in  the 
United  States. 


Character  Training 

More  important  even  than  technical 
book  education  is  a  training  in  char- 
acter, in  will.  Most  republics  that  have 
failed  owe  their  failures  to  lack  of  self- 
control  on  the  part  of  the  citizens.  A 
group  of  men,  for  example,  that  finds 
itself  in  a  minority  after  an  election, 
and  is  unwilling  to  accept  the  decision 
of  the  majority,  starts  a  revolution  to 
seize  the  offices.  Such  methods  will 
in  time  destroy  a  democracy.  Only 
people  of  self-controlled  will  can  make 
a  success  of  self-government.  Democ- 
racy is  self-government. 

Another  item  of  equal  importance 
is  that  the  individual  citizen  must  un- 
selfishly consider  the  welfare  of  the 
community  as  a  whole.  It  has  already 
been  noted  that  taxpayers  are  often 
unwilling  to  bear  the  proper  burdens  of 
taxation.  This  usually  happens  because 
people  do  not  realize  how  much  they 
owe  to  the  government,  or  that  govern- 
ment is  all  of  us  organized.  The  proper 
attitude,  however,  is  that  of  the  good 
neighbor,  the  man  who  wishes  to  see 
the  community  as  a  whole  prosperous. 
When  citizens  possess  sufficient  knowl- 
edge, self-control,  and  devotion  to  the 
welfare  of  the  majority,  their  govern- 
ment is  sure  to  be  successful. 

The  vote  is  the  greatest  gift  of  the 
State  to  its  political  children.  The 
citizen,  who  is  granted  this  privilege 
should  seek  to  merit  it  by  securing  all 
the  information  possible  that  will  give 
him  a  better  understanding  of  govern- 
ment. It  is  even  more  important  that 
the  citizens,  as  has  been  stated,  train 
themselves  in  self-control  and  unselfish- 
ness. Especially  is  this  true  in  the 
United  States  where  government  by  the 
people  prevails.  If  our  government  is 
to  succeed  all  citizens  must  be  trained 
for  self-government.  In  the  words  of 
the  noted  economist,  John  Stuart  Mill: 
"  Universal  teaching  must  go  hand  in 
hand  with  universal  voting." 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


OUR  REPRESENTATIVES  IN  CONGRESS 

One  reason  why  the  United  States  is  such    a  stable,  strong  and  sound  country  is  this: 

It  has  a  Representative  Government 


CHAPTER  VIII 


Our  Representatives  in  Government 

A  Man  Chosen  by  Others  to  Act  as  Their  Representative  Should  Be  a 

Free  Agent 


THE  UNITED  STATES  is  a  young 
nation.  We  seldom  stop  to  con- 
sider, however,  that  it  is  the  oldest 
popular  government  now  existing  in  the 
world,  and  that  according  to  some  author- 
ities it  is  the  strongest  democracy  and 
the  one  least  inclined  to  change  its  ways. 
Proof  of  the  first  of  these  statements 
can  be  found  in  history.  For  proof  of 
the  other  two  we 
must  examine  the 
organization  of  the 
government  of  the 
United  States  which 
makes  it  difficult  to 
pass  new  laws 
quickly  unless  un- 
usual circumstances, 
such  as  war,  demand 
them.  Govern- 

ment action  is  too 
slow,  we  are  told. 
Yet  when  we  see  the 
trouble  that  comes 
to  impatient  nations 
we  must  ask  our- 
selves this  question : 
Were  not  the  found- 
ers of  our  country 
wise  when  they  so 
framed  the  Consti- 
tution   as    to    make 

our  government  take  stock  before  pass- 
ing an  important  piece  of  legislation? 
Of  people  who  act  rashly  we  always 
say :  "  Well,  you  can  expect  nothing  good 
from  them,  they  are  always  in  hot 
water!"  If  plain  Mr.  Homestead  and 
Miss  Flora  Loveland  elope  an  hour  after 
being  introduced  at  a  suburban  dance,  all 
the  neighbors  murmur :  "  Marry  in  haste, 
repent  at  leisure."  But  if  Senator  Home- 
stead and  Senator  Flora  Loveland,  along 
with   other  senators,   fail  to  put  a  bill 


The  True  Basis 

n^HE  United  States  is 
-■-  made  up  of  great 
cities,  of  farms,  of  ranches, 
of  the  orange  groves  of 
California,  of  the  mills  of 
New  England,  of  the  cot- 
ton fields  of  the  South  and 
of  the  wheat  fields  of  the 
West  .  .  .  Representa- 
tives coming  from  all  parts 
of  the  country  bring  to- 
gether the  public  opinion 
of  the  Nation.  On  the  basis 
of  that  public  opinion 
legislation  is  passed. 


through  promptly  after  it  has  been  intro- 
duced, the  voters  grumble  and  exclaim: 
"  H-m-m !  They're  slower  than  molasses 
in  winter  time !  " 

There  is  too  much  at  stake  for  a  govern- 
ment to  act  hastily.  The  Prohibition 
Amendment  is  an  example  of  the  difficul- 
ties in  making  a  law  that  pleases  every- 
one. Although  it  was  discussed  for 
many  years  before 
it  became  law,  and 
was  passed  as  the 
Constitution  d  e- 
crees  amendments 
should  be  passed, 
there  are  still  many 
people  who  think  it 
unfair  and  unjust. 

A  large  majority 
of  the  population 
should  be  in  favor  of 
laws  of  this  character 
before  they  are  put 
into  law,  otherwise 
public  sentiment  will 
not  be  strong  enough 
to  enforce  them. 

Real  progress  in 
government  is  made 
step  by  step ;  it  does 
not  come  in  a  hurry. 
Laws  formed  as  the 
result  of  hasty  action  are  likely  to  do 
more  harm  than  good.  The  difficult  prob- 
lems of  democratic  government  demand 
the  earnest  thought  of  all  citizens. 

Difficulties  of  Detecting  Errors 

It  is  often  difficult  in  government  to 
know  or  to  discover  what  is  wrong. 
Often  what  appears  an  evil  is  not 
wrong.  Again,  after  one  discovers  the 
evil  it  is  Still  difficult  to  suggest  a 
remedy. 


121 


122 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


After  the  World  War  there  was  a  great  public 
clamor  for  lower  prices.  In  1919,  the  President  called 
a  GREAT  CONFERENCE  OF  LABOR  AND  BUSI- 
NESS MEN  to  Washington  to  see  if  a  way  could  not 
be  found  to  reduce  prices.     But  the  task  of  reducing 


prices  was  very  great.  This  task  was  made  harder 
because  a  period  of  unemployment  set  in.  People 
without  work  could  not  buy.  Prices,  under  such  con- 
ditions, naturally  came  down  of  themselves  but  not  in 
a  way  that  pleased  the  public  or  our  representatives 
in  Washington.  Even  if  goods  are  sold  at  lower 
prices  it  hardly  can  interest  THE  MAN  OUT  OF  A 
JOB,  or  the  farmer  who,  perhaps,   receives   so   little 


for    his   crop   that    it   does    not    PAY    HIM    TO    HAR- 
VEST  IT. 


Every  citizen  knows  that 
shortly  after  the  World  War  there 
was  a  great  public  demand  for 
lower  prices.  Politicians  espe- 
cially were  demanding  that  the 
high  cost  of  living  and  high  prices 
should  come  down.  The  word 
"  profiteer  "  was  on  everybody's 
lips.  Often  the  average  citizen 
seemed  to  think  that  a  profiteer 
was  everyone  else  but  fiimself. 
Few  stopped  to  consider  that  in 
periods  of  high  prices  work  is 
plentiful,  everyone  is  earning 
good  wages,  and  there  is  little  real 
suffering.  But  when  prices  come 
down  many  find  that  work  is 
scarce  and  wages  and  profits  less. 

Government  Must  Take  Time 

There  is  no  use  telling  a  man 
who  is  out  of  work  that  he  may 
buy  a  shirt  today  for  one  dollar 
and  fifty  cents  which  cost  three 
dollars  a  year  ago.  Nor  would  it 
be  wise  to  praise  low  prices  in 
the  presence  of  a  western  farmer 
who  perhaps  receives  so  little 
for  his  crop  that  it  hardly  pays 
him  to  harvest  it.  The  ques- 
tion of  high  or  low  prices  is 
one  of  those  just  mentioned  as 
being  hard  to  solve. 

Which  is  the  better?  What 
is  the  remedy  when  prices  are 
high?  What  is  to  be  done  when 
prices  are  low?  Would  there 
have  been  a  bad  panic  in  the 
United  States  after  the  late  war 
if  prices  had  not  come  down? 
Now  that  they  are  down,  how 
are  we  to  relieve  the  suffering 
that  the  low  prices  have  brought? 
No  one  knows.  We  see  then  how 
difficult  it  is  for  a  government 
to  act  wisely  and  justly  toward 
all  its  people.  It  must  take  time 
to  tfiink  before  it  acts  if  it  is  to 
be  strong  and  wise. 


OUR     REPRESENTATIVES     IN     GOVERNMENT 


123 


Representative  Government 

One  reason  why  the  United 
States  is  such  a  stable,  strong  and 
sound  country  is  this:  It  has  a 
representative  government.  A 
representative  government  is  one 
in  which  the  people  choose  cer- 
tain of  their  number  to  act  for 
them  upon  public  questions.  It 
is  carried  on  by  individuals  elect- 
ed by  the  voters  who  could  not 
possibly  take  time  away  from  the 
business  of  making  their  living 
to  study  the  relative  merits  of  all 
the  complex  governmental  prob- 
lems that  arise. 

Representative  government  in 
America  was  first  established  in 
Virginia  in  1619.  Every  one  of 
the  Thirteen  Original  Colonies 
which  later  formed  the  United 
States  had  representative  as- 
semblies, elected  by  the  voters, 
which  had  the  power  to  legislate 
and  the  power  to  tax. 

Legislation  in  a  Small  Town 

In  Massachusetts  and  other 
New  England  States  town 
meetings  called  together  all  the 
citizens  of  all  the  towns  at 
certain  stated  times  of  the  year 
and  passed  laws.  The  people 
attended  these  meetings  in  per- 
son, and  by  personal  voting  ex- 
pressed their  approval  or  dis- 
approval on  town  questions.  For 
small  groups  this  was  an  excel- 
lent way  of  doing  business.  Even 
today  this  method  of  legislating 
is  carried  on  in  New  England 
towns,  in  New  York  rural  dis- 
tricts, in  Michigan*  and  else- 
where. The  townspeople  make 
their  own  laws,  elect  tjieir  own 
officials,  make  their  own  appro- 
priations for  local  improvements, 
and  provide  for  the  raising  of 
their  own  taxes. 


In  the  early  months  of  1922,  prices  were  down,  but 
many  were  out  of  work.  Few  were  satisfied.  So,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  work  of  our  Representatives  is 
most  difficult  at  times.  Upon  their  shoulders  rest 
many  complex  problems.  The  reduction  of  prices 
and  unemployment  are  but  two  of  the  problems  that 
they  are  called  upon  to  solve.  WE,  OURSELVES, 
ARE  TOO   BUSY  to  give  the  necessary  time  to  the 


careful  study  that  these  and  many  other  questions 
demand.  WE  HAVE  OUR  WORK  TO  DO  in  shop, 
office,  factory  or  farm.  Long  ago,  when  there  were 
fewer  people  in  the  country  and  men  took  more  time 


to  attend  to  public  matters,  all  the  voters  used  to 
gather  in  MEETING  HOUSES— the  one  illustrated  is 
typical — and  there  discuss  public  questions. 


124 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


PART  OF  THE  GREAT  CROWD  at  President 
Harding's  inauguration,  March  4,  1920.  How  could 
each  of  th^se  be  hear^  in  a  tovyn  meeting? 


For  large  groups  such  a  method 
is  found  difficult.  Just  as  soon 
as  the  towns  grow  into  cities  the 
plan  weakens;  and  when  states 
composed  of  millions  of  people 
try  the  method,  it  fails  altogether. 
What  would  happen  if  it  were 
attempted  by  the  National  Gov- 
ernment, itself! 

In  small  towns  all  the  citizens 
can  get  together  in  one  single 
large  room  or  hall  and  debate 
town  politics.  They  can  meet, 
for  example,  to  discuss  whether 
or  not  they  wish  to  have  a  new 
high  school,  and  where  that  high 
school  should  be  located.  But 
where  can  all  the  people  of  a 
state  get  together?  And  how 
can  the  average  voter,  without 
much  time  for  study,  solve  the 
complex  problems  of  state  and 
nation? 

Complex  Problems 

The  tariff,  the  control  of  the 
railroads,  the  organization  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  Bank,  the  mak- 
ing of  a  treaty,  the  drafting 
of  a  franchise  for  a  city 
street  railway,  unemployment, 
are  questions  which  require 
knowledge,  training  and  long 
study  by  people  who  give  their 
whole  time  to  such  subjects.  Can 
we,  as  voters,  do  better  than 
to  elect  to  office  honest,  well- 
qualified  men  and  women  whg 
will  deal  wisely  for  us  with  these 
and  other  great  questions? 
Former  President  Wilson  has 
stated;  "A  people  who  know 
their  own  minds  and  can  get  real 
representatives  to  express  them 
are  a  self-governed  people." 

Good  government  is  not  so 
much  a  question  as  to  which  is 
more  democratic,  direct  or  repre- 
sentative legislation,  but,  rather, 
which  gives  th^  b^tt^r  r?§wUSt 


OUR    REPRESENTATIVES     IN     GOVERNMENT 


125 


As  American  Government  is  run 
today,  the  main  responsibility  of 
the  voter  is  to  elect  upright  and 
wise  representatives  who  will 
act  for  him.  The  ultimate  and 
the  final  power  of  government  in 
the  United  States  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  people,  but  to  a  very  great 
extent,  and  necessarily  so,  the 
people  must  express  this  power 
and  rule  through  chosen  agents. 

Representatives  or  Delegates 

In  a  representative  democracy 
the  voters  pick  out  a  small  group 
of  men  who  will  act  for  the  many. 
A  man  chosen  to  act  for  others, 
to  be  a  representative,  should  be 
a  free  agent.  In  other  words,  he 
has  the  right  to  act  as  he  thinks 
best  in  a  given  situation.  He 
should  be  subjected  to  no  direct 
compulsion. 

For  example,  if  he  is  elected 
to  Congress  he  must  bear  in  mind 
that  it  is  his  duty  to  act  for  the 
good  of  the  whole  nation,  and 
not  alone  for  the  good  of  the  dis- 
trict from  which  he  comes.  At 
times  he  may  have  to  go  against 
the  views  held  by  the  majority  in 
his  district.  Some  people  feel, 
however,  that  a  representative 
must  be  a  delegate;  that  he  must 
always  vote  as  his  particular  dis- 
trict dictates ;  that  he  is  its  mouth- 
piece or  sounding  board. 

The  distinction  between  a 
delegate  and  a  representative  is 
very  important.  If  representa- 
tives are  to  be  looked  upon  as 
mere  mouthpieces,  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  we  shall  secure 
big  and  outstanding  men  for  our 
legislators.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  we  keep  in  mind  the  idea  that 
our  legislators  are  our  represen- 
tatives we  shall  probably  secure 
men  who  think  independently 
and  who  are  willing  to  take  the 


With  a  population  of  105,710,620,  living  in  2,974,000 
square  miles  of  territory,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
call  together  the  people  of  even  one  big  city.  So  WE 
ELECT  REPRESENTATIVES  WHO  LEGISLATE 
FOR  US.     Our  legislators  must  take  an  oath  to  up- 


hold the  Constitution  and  our  laws.  Every  rep- 
resentative, from  the  President  of  the  United  States 
down  to  the  humblest  public  official,  MUST  TAKE 
SUCH  AN  OATH  upon  taking  office.  The  illustration 
shows  William  McKinley  the  twenty-fifth  President 
of  the  United  States,  taking  the  oath  of  office. 


126 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Surely  Representatives  can  do  the  work  of  making 
laws  better  than  we  could  do  it  ourselves.  They  give 
all  their  time  to  the  work;  they  are  in  company  with 
people  from  all  parts  of  the  country;  they  are  in 
constant  touch  with  experts  in  every  walk  of  life. 
The  President,  or  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency, 
meets  citizens  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  He 
meets    THE    PEOPLE    OF    THE    FAR    WEST.      He 


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s 

talks  to  the  men  and  women  OF  OUR  GREAT  CITIES. 
He    discusses   the    questions    of   the    day    with    men 


and  women  who  live  on  THE  GREAT  FARMS  AND 
RANCHES.  The  same  is  true  of  our  representatives. 
We  have  neither  time  nor  opportunity  to  get  their 
point  of  view.  But  our  President  and  our  other  rep- 
resentatives have. 


responsibilities  of  furthering,  as 
best  they  can,  their  country's 
welfare.  Representatives  have, 
also,  better  opportunities  to 
study  and  understand  public 
questions  in  all  their  bearings 
than  their  constituents  can  pos- 
sibly have.  The  delegate  idea, 
however,  favors  the  demagogue, 
the  man  who  is  willing  to  prom- 
ise to  do  anything  or  everything 
that  his  district  desires. 

Value  of  the  Representative 

Individuals  constantly  living 
among  people  who  think  as  they 
do  are  apt  to  become  narrow- 
minded.  We  should  keep  in 
mind  the  fact  that  a  legislature 
represents,  in  the  case  of  a  city, 
all  sections  of  the  city,  in  the 
case  of  a  state,  all  sections  of 
that  state,  and  in  the  case  of 
Congress,  all  sections  of  the 
United  States.  Representatives, 
meeting  as  they  do  representa- 
tives from  all  sections  of  the 
city,  the  state,  or  the  nation,  are 
best  qualified  to  legislate  for  the 
common  good,  A  wide  differ- 
ence of  social  and  economic  con- 
ditions in  the  United  States, 
makes  it  very  difficult  to  tell  what 
the  opinion  of  the  whole  country 
is  on  any  particular  issue.  The 
legislator,  the  representative,  is 
probably  more  nearly  correct  in 
his  judgment  of  what  the  people 
want  than  are  the  voters. 

One  of  the  great  benefits  of 
a  Presidential  election  is  gained 
from  the  fact  that  the  candi- 
dates often  visit  all  parts  of  the 
country  during  the  campaign. 
The  knowledge  thus  gained 
helps  the  successful  candidate 
to  fill  better  the  high  office  of 
President  of  the  whole  country. 

A  man  in  Chicago,  for  example, 
may  not  realize  that  nearly  one- 


OUR     REPRESENTATIVES     IN     GOVERNMENT 


127 


half  o£  the  population  o£  the 
United  States  is  living  in  rural 
districts.  A  man  living  in  a 
small  town,  or  on  a  ranch  in  the 
far  west,  does  not  realize  what 
six  million  people  look  like  in 
the  city  of  New  York.  The 
United  States  is  made  up  of 
great  cities,  of  farms,  of  ranches, 
of  mines,  of  the  orange  groves 
of  California,  of  the  mills  of 
New  England,  of  the  cotton 
fields  of  the  South,  and  the 
wheat  fields  of  the  West. 

All  these  go  into  the  making 
of  the  American  Nation,  which 
is  organized  in  such  a  way  that 
representatives  coming  from  all 
parts  of  the  country,  represent- 
ing all  the  different  economic 
and  social  interests  of  all  the 
states,  bring  together  the  public 
opinion  of  the  nation.  On  the 
basis  of  that  public  opinion 
legislation  is  passed. 

A  Word  of  Caution 

A  word  of  caution  should  be 
given  here.  One  often  gets  the 
idea  from  some  of  our  news- 
papers and  at  times  from  speak- 
ers, that  most  representatives  in 
government  are  in  office  solely 
for  their  own  good  or  for  selfish 
reasons.  In  some  cases  this  is 
no  doubt  true,  but  it  is  not  usu- 
ally the  case.  Many  examples 
might  be  given  of  men  who  have 
sacrificed  career  and  fortune  to 
serve  the  people.  We  are  very 
quick,  often  too  quick,  to  say  that 
public  servants  are  self-seeking. 

W  Government  Reform 

Many  people  today  demand 
that  our  government  move  more 
quickly.  They  are  not  content 
with  slow  but  sure  progress. 
They  feel  that  representative 
government  does  not  carry  out 
the  wishes  of  the  people;   that 


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Our  legislators  in  Congress  who  come  from  ail  the 
States  meet  together  in  Washington  and  there  ex- 
change views.  COMMITTEES  IN  CONGRESS  that 
are  created  to  study  questions  for  the  purpose  of 
future   legislation   are  made   up  of  public   representa- 


tives   from    the    North,    South,    East    and    West.      In 
addition,   THESE   COMMITTEES   have   power  to   get 


expert  advice  touching  upon  such  questions  as  UN- 
EMPLOYMENT, NAVIGATION,  LABOR,  FINANCE 
— every  public  question,  in  fact.  The  names  of  some 
of  these  committees  are:  Agriculture  and  Forestry, 
Appropriations,  Banking  and  Currency,  Civil  Service, 
Commerce,  Education  and  Labor,  Finance,  Foreign 
Relations,  Immigration,  Ways  and  Means,  Appropria- 
tions, Pensions  and  NavaJ  Affairs.  There  are  about 
twenty  chief  committees  of  the  U.  S.  Senate,  and 
about  the  same  number  in  the  House. 


128 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVEftNMfiKtt 


INSTRUCTIONS 


The  chief  reforms  that  are  demanded  by  the  people 
are  four,  namely:  Direct  Primaries,  Initiative  Legis- 
lation, Referendum  and  the  Recall.  DIRECT  PRI- 
MARIES seems  to  be  the  most  Important.  The 
method  that  was  used  everywhere  up  to  a  few  years 
ago    was    known     as    the     Convention     System.       A 


(jolitical  party  holds  a  Convention.  It  MAKES  A 
PARTY  SLATE  which  includes  all  the  names  of  the 
candidates  nominated  at  the  convention.  These 
names  are  printed  under  the  party  emblem. 


it  does  not  respond  to  popular 
demands;  that  political  parties 
rather  than  the  people  dictate  the 
actions  of  our  representatives. 

The  chief  reforms  that  are 
demanded  to  remedy  those  con- 
ditions are  four:  First,  that 
the  selection  of  candidates 
shall  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  voters  at  what  are  called 
"  direct  primaries."  Second,  that 
if  the  people  so  desire,  they  may 
initiate  laws  by  petition  and  not 
through  representatives,  thereby 
getting  what  is  known  as  "  initi- 
ative legislation."  Third,  that  if 
the  people  desire,  a  law  shall  be 
referred  to  the  voter  for  final 
decision.  This  process  is  called 
the  "  referendum."  Fourth,  that 
any  ofBcial  who  does  not  meet 
the  demands  of  the  public  shall 
be  turned  out  of  office  by  what 
is  known  as  the  "recall." 

Direct   Primaries 

Two  methods  of  selecting  can- 
didates for  office  are  in  use.  The 
first  is  the  method  which  was 
used  almost  everywhere  a  few 
years  ago — the  convention  sys- 
tem.    It  operates  as  follows: 

A  political  party  holds  a 
convention  of  party  delegates, 
chosen  at  local  caucuses,  to 
select  people  from  the  party 
who  seem  best  suited  to  run 
for  office.  People  so  selected 
are  said  to  be  nominated  for 
office  by  the  party  in  convention. 
The  party  officers  then  publish  a 
list  of  all  the  men  and  women 
nominated.  This  list  is  known  as 
the  party  slate  or  ticket.  On  the 
ballot  used  on  election  day  the 
party  ticket  is  printed  under  or 
over  the  party  emblem.  Since 
other  political  parties  have 
chosen   their   candidates   in  the 


OUR    REPRESENTATIVES    IN    GOVERNMENT 


129 


same  manner  and  printed  their 
tickets  on  the  ballot  sheet,  each 
party  ticket  is  said  to  be  run 
against  the  other. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  men 
nominated  in  conventions  are  not 
the  real  choice  of  the  people  but 
of  a  few  party  managers,  or  pos- 
sibly one  manager — the  boss.  To 
remedy  the  defects  of  the  con- 
vention method  a  second  plan  for 
choosing  candidates  has  been 
used.  It  is  known  as  the  direct 
primary,  and  works  as  follows: 

The  voters  themselves,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Government, 
hold  an  election,  a  primary,  in 
which  it  is  decided  directly  what 
candidates  will  go  on  the  party 
ticket.  At  this  election  anyone 
in  the  party  may  run  for  any 
office,  A  voter  may  even  nomi- 
nate himself  if  he  sees  fit  to  do  so, 
even  though  the  party  managers 
and  bosses  are  against  him.  This 
method,  as  has  been  pointed  out, 
does  away  with  delegates  and 
makes  the  nominations  free  to 
all.  It  gives  each  individual 
voter  the  chance  to  select  his 
own  candidate.  It  is  a  sys- 
tem of  choosing  candidates  now 
used  in  many  of  the  states  of  the 
United  States,  though  the  presi- 
dential candidates  are  still 
chosen  every  four  years  by  the 
convention  method. 

The  Vital  Need 

No  matter  which  system  is 
used,  the  direct  primary  or  the 
convention,  the  results  will  al- 
ways be  poor  if  the  people  are 
not  alert,  intelligent,  active  and 
enthusiastic.  This  is  the  vital 
need — an  electorate  that  is  in- 
telligent and  on  the  job. 


Ic  IS  claimed  that  men  nominated  by  the  convention 
system  are  not  the  choice  of  the  people,  but  of 
political  bosses.  To  remedy  the  defects  of  the  con- 
vention method  the  Direct  Primary  method  is  often 
used.  The  voters  themselves  hold  an  election,  a  pri- 
mary, and  there  decide  who  shall  be  candidates.  The 
method  of  voting  in  the  primary  is  no  different 
from  a  regular  election.  The  former  Governor  of 
New  York  State — Mr.  Alfred  E.  Smith — and  Mrs. 
Smith,   are    here   shown    VOTING   AT   A    PRIMARY. 


A  primary  campaign   is  conducted   like  any  political 
campaign.     The  vote  at  a  primary  is  never  as  large 


as  the  vote  at  an  ordinary  election.     Presidential  can- 
didates are  chosen  by  the  CONVENTION  SYSTEM. 


130 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


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INITIATIVE  means  that  the  people  themselves 
may  propose  laws  without  waiting  for  their  repre- 
sentatives to  do  so.  THIS  IS  SAMPLE  OF  BALLOT 
USED  IN  CALIFORNIA  IN  1920,  on  which  the 
measures    then    submitted    to    the    electors    were: 

CONSTITUTIONAL  AMENDMENTS  PROPOSED 
BY  LEGISLATURE — Constitutional  Convention,  State 
Aid  to  Institutions,  Absent  Voters,  Alien   Poll-  Tax. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  AMENDMENTS  PROPOSED 
BY  INITIATIVE  PETITIONS— Highway  Bonds,  Initia- 
tive, Land  Values  Taxation,  Prohibiting  Compulsory 
Vaccination,   Salaries  of  Justices,   School   System. 

ACTS  OF  LEGISLATURE  SUBMITTED  TO  REF- 
ERENDUM— Community  Property,  Insurance  Act, 
Irrigation  District  Act,  Poison  Act. 

ACTS  SUBMITTED  BY  INITIATIVE  PETITION— 
Alien  Land  Law,  Chiropractic  Act,  Vivisection. 


Initiative  and  Referendum 

Other  popular  reforms  have 
been  introduced  in  many  cities 
and  states  under  the  title  of  the 
Initiative  and  Referendum.  In- 
itiative means  simply  that  the 
people  themselves  may  propose 
laws  without  waiting  for  their 
representatives  to  do  so.  The 
method  generally  used  is  to  cir- 
culate a  petition  among  the  vot- 
ers and  if  ten,  or  fifteen,  or 
twenty-five  per  cent — the  per- 
centage varies  according  to  the 
states — of  the  voters  sign  the 
proposed  law,  it  is  submitted  at 
the  next  general  election  for  re- 
jection or  adoption,  or  the  legis- 
lature is  compelled  to  propose 
such  a  law  for  submission.  This 
method  of  lawmaking  has  been 
introduced  into  many  cities  and 
about  one-third  of  the  states. 

The  Referendum  is  very  simi- 
lar in  character  to  the  Initiative. 
A  bill  is  passed  by  the  Legis- 
lature, but  a  number  of  citizens 
of  the  state,  or  city,  feel  that  the 
Legislature  has  made  a  mistake, 
that  if  this  bill  were  submitted 
to  the  people,  a  different  decision 
would  be  made.  In  such  a 
case,  a  petition  is  circulated  ask- 
ing that  the  bill  be  submitted 
to  the  vote  of  the  people  at  an 
election.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
initiative,  if  a  certain  percentage 
of  the  voters,  ten,  fifteen,  or 
twenty-five  per  cent,  sign  this 
petition,  the  law  is  then  sub- 
mitted to  the  people  for  a  refer- 
endum vote.  California  has  the 
referendum  plan. 

It  is  a  question  open  to  fair 
consideration  whether  the  citi- 
zen will  get  better  laws  by 
passing  upon  them  himself,  or 
by  giving  his  best  thought  upon 
choosing  the  right  kind  of 
representatives. 


OUR     REPRESENTATIVES     IN     GOVERNMENT 


131 


The  Recall 

There  is  another  popular  reform — the 
Recall.  It  has  to  do  with  representa- 
tives. It  is  a  device  whereby  a  mayor, 
a  judge,  a  governor,  or  any  other  elected 
officer  may  be  forced  out  of  his  position 
because  he  has  displeased  the  majority 
of  those  voting. 

If  a  number  of  citizens,  say,  twenty- 
five  or  fifty  per  cent — the  percentage 
varies  according  to  the  states — sign  a 
petition  demanding  the  recall  of  an 
official  who  they  feel  has  not  been 
carrying  out  his  pledges,  the  official  in 
question  must  stand  for  another  elec- 
tion. He  must  go  before  the  people, 
defend  his  policies,  and  ask  for  a  vote 
of  confidence.  If  the  vote  goes  against 
him  he  is  removed  from  office  and 
another  person  is  elected  to  fill  his 
place.  In  other  words,  the  recall  is  a 
way  for  dissatisfied  voters  to  express 
their  disapproval  of  their  official  repre- 
sentatives without  waiting  for  the  regu- 
lar election  date  to  come  around. 

Much  can  be  said  both  for  and  against 
the  recall.  There  are  officials  who  do 
wrong,  who  become  grafters,  who  are 
not  fit  for  office,  who  get  mixed  up  with 
vice.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
well-intentioned  voters  may  use  the 
recall  to  advantage. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  many 
officials  who  do  right  and  are  exactly 
fitted  for  office,  who  clean  out  grafters 
and  remove  the  vicious,  but  who  do  not 
suit  the  prejudiced,  mean  groups  of  a 
community.  Under  such  circumstances 
the  use  of  the  recall  may,  if  the  vicious 
succeed,  prove  very  harmful. 

■  A  Narrow  View 

Some  people  fall  into  the  habit  of 
I  thinking  that  government  is  poor  and 


inefficient  because  they  do  not  get  what 
they  want,  or  because  the  government 
does  not  do  as  they  think  it  should. 
That  is  natural.  They  consider  their 
opinions  the  will  of  the  majority,  and 
are,  therefore,  suspicious  when  legisla- 
tion does  not  go  their  way.  It  is  quite 
possible,  however,  that  their  opinions 
are  held  by  only  a  small  group,  and  that 
the  representatives  are  actually  pre- 
venting minority  legislation  from  being 
passed  when  they  refuse  to  carry  out 
certain  demands. 

Those  individuals  who  have  traveled 
the  country  from  the  Pacific  to  the  At- 
lantic know  that  opinions  held  in  New 
York  and  Boston  are  not  necessarily 
those  held  by  the  voters  in  the  rest  of  the 
country  on  many  important  questions. 
Many  people  in  the  great  immigration 
centers  feel  that  the  restriction  of  im- 
migration, for  example,  is  unwise,  and 
that  the  almost  unanimous  action  of 
Congress  in  1921,  in  cutting  down 
the  numbers  of  people  allowed  to 
come  into  the  United  States,  did  not 
represent  the  feelings  of  the  people. 
The  action  of  Congress  in  this  par- 
ticular case  may  not  meet  the  wishes 
of  groups  in  New  York  or  other  cities, 
but  it  is  very  likely  that  when  Congress 
acts  almost  unanimously  it  knows  what 
it  is  doing  and  is  representing,  faith- 
fully, the  sentiments  of  the  country  as 
a  whole.  If  conditions  and  public  senti- 
ment change.  Congress,  no  doubt,  will 
express  itself  in  new  immigration  legis- 
lation to  meet  the  situation.  Congress 
seldom  passes  legislation  by  an  over- 
whelming vote  without  being  right  in  its 
judgment  of  public  opinion. 


"  Where  Liberty  dwells,  there  is  my  country." — Franklin. 

Hb     •1'     4? 

"God  grants  liberty  only  to  those  who  love  it,  and  are  always  ready  to 
guard  and  defend  it." — Daniel  Webster. 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


PUBLIC    EDUCATION,    A    GREAT   TASK    OF    GOVERNMENT 
A  few  years  ago  these  things — libraries  and  books — were  only  for  the  wealthy 


CHAPTER  IX 


Taxes  and  Government 


Taxation  is  Compulsory  Payment  for  Services  Rendered  by  Local,  State  or 

Federal  Government 


T 


T  IS  NOT  RIGHT  to  exempt  me 
from  paying  an  income  tax!  A  citi- 
zen should  pay  to  his  government  a 
percentage  of  what  he  earns,  no  matter 
how  small  that  percentage  may  be.  I 
get  a  great  deal  from  my  government; 
I  should  have  the  satisfaction  of  paying, 
in  part  at  least,  for  what  I  get."  This  was 
a  most  unusual  complaint !  It  was  made 
by  a  married  man 
who  was  exempt 
from  the  Federal 
and  New  York  State 
Income  Tax  because 
he  Eeceived  only 
fifteen  hundred  dol- 
lars a  year! 

It  is  an  unusual 
point  of  view.  Few 
people  have  it.  Usu- 
ally the  Government 
is  looked  upon  as  a 
far-away  organiza- 
tion, located  i  n 
Washington,  D.  C, 
which  is  forever 
taking  in  taxes  the 
daily  bread  of  the 
average  citizen.  Yet, 
is  not  Mr.  Fifteen 
Hundred's  view,  as 
expressed  above,  the 
only  one  that  every  citizen  should  have? 
Good  and  efficient  government  is  almost 
as  necessary  to  the  individual  as  food, 
clothing  and  shelter.  If  we  would  but 
take  the  time  to  examine  facts  we  should 
quickly  discover  how  absolutely  essen- 
tial good  government  is  to  our  every- 
day happiness  and  welfare ;  how  our  very 
life  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which 
government  is  carried  on.  Why,  then, 
should  we  cry  "  Extortion !  "  and  "  Rob- 
bery !  "  when  we  receive  a  bill  in  the 


form  of  a  tax  for  these  essential  ser- 
vices of  government?  Why,  in  other 
words,  should  we  regard  taxes  as  a 
worse  burden  than  grocery  bills? 

What  We  Get  From  Our  Government 

The  pocketbook,  especially  when  it  is 
taxed,  is  a  touchy  spot.  On  account  of 
the  heavy  burdens  of  taxes  and  living 
expenses,  most  peo- 
ple today  are  criti- 
cising their  govern- 
ment for  spending 
too  much  money. 
The  demand  that 
taxes  be  reduced  is 
general.  All  about 
us  we  hear  the 
charge  that  the  gov- 
ernment is  ineffi- 
cient, wasteful  and 
extravagant. 

Such  statements 
are  apt  to  be 
thoughtless..  Those 
who  make  them  at 
times  scarcely  real- 
ize how,  from  the 
cradle  to  the  grave, 
all  of  us  are  depend- 
ent upon  govern- 
ment for  assistance 
and  protection.  But  few  know  that 
the  individual  becomes  more  and 
more  dependent  upon  his  government 
in  proportion  as  life  becomes  more  com- 
plex. If  we  consider  a  moment,  our 
minds  can  recall  many  vitally  important 
services  rendered  by  government. 

The  traffic  policeman,  the  soldier  and 
sailor,  the  judge,  the  school-teacher,  the 
postman,  the  lighthouse  keeper,  the 
visiting  nurse,  the  health  officer,  are 
ever  present  reminders  of  the  services 

133 


Resources  Limited 

"jWrANY  citizens  have 
^^^  the  idea  that  the 
Government  has  unlim- 
ited resources  received 
through  taxation.  They 
do  not  realize  that  each 
individual  must  pay  his 
share  of  the  Govern- 
ment's cost  out  of  his  own 
pocket. . .  A  good  govern- 
ment is  careful  not  to 
undertake  too  many  new 
activities  which  will  make 
necessary  burdensome 
and  unwise  "taxation. 


134 


WE      AND       OUR       GOVERNMENT 


Many  object  to  the  amount  in  taxes  that  we  have 
to  pay  for  the  service  that  the  government  gives  us. 
We  think  government  is  wasteful.  In  many  ways  it 
is.  Yet  THESE  PUBLIC  SERVANTS  receive  very 
moderate  salaries  for  the  important  tasks  they  per- 
form. They  protect  us,  assist  industry,  look  after  the 
health  of  the  community  and  educate  our  children. 


which  our  government  renders  in 
return  for  taxes.  These  govern- 
ment servants  are  all  a  part  of 
our  every-day  life ;  they  are  all 
busy  carrying  on  that  important 
task  of  government  which  is  to 
look  after  our  common  needs. 
These  individuals  protect  us 
from  danger,  make  industry  pos- 
sible, look  after  the  health  of  the 
community  and  educate  our  chil- 
dren. None  are  overpaid;  most 
of  them  receive  very  moderate 
salaries,  yet  all  are  doing  their 
tasks  in  an  orderly,  quiet  and  ef- 
ficient manner.  The  mail  is  de- 
livered, children  are  educated, 
the  streets  are  kept  clean,  traffic 
is  regulated,  and  travel  by  sea  is 
made  less  dangerous — all  by  gov- 
ernment servants  who  save  us 
much  thought  and  inconvenience. 
Their  salaries  are  paid  by  us  in 
the  form  of  Federal,  state  and 
local  taxes. 

Thoughtless  Criticism 

We  must  avoid  making  care- 
less statements  that  lump  all 
government  services  under  the 
head  of  "  wasteful,  extravagant 
and  inefficient."  It  is  unwise  to 
criticize  taxation  before  first 
taking  time  to  learn  why  the 
government  spends  money,  and 
what  proportion  is  spent  for  the 
various  activities  carried  on  by 
the  government. 

The  thoughtless  "  knock- 
ing "  of  the  government,  in- 
dulged in  by  so  many,  may  do 
much  more  harm  than  good.  It 
may  result  at  times  in  curtailing 
or  even  abolishing  many  excel- 
lent and  vital  activities,  and  may 
harm  a  great  many  individuals 
in  the  public  service  who  have 
rendered  long  and  faithful  ser- 
vice. On  the  other  hand  intelli- 
gent,   thoughtful    and    indepen- 


TAXES      AND       GOVERNMENT 


135 


dent  criticism  of  a  helpful  nature 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  keep 
a  democracy  efficient  and  respon- 
sive to  public  opinion. 

Many  of  us  look  upon  govern- 
ment solely  as  a  force  that  re- 
stricts. Its  main  purpose  just 
now,  to  some,  seems  centered 
upon  keeping  them  from  getting 
a  drink.  Such  a  viewpoint  is 
very  shortsighted.  It  is  true 
that  government  as  our  agent 
does  restrict  us,  but  the  restric- 
tions are  generally  for  our  own 
and  our  neighbor's  good,  or  for 
the  good  of  society.  However, 
the  government  also,  as  our 
agent,  does  vastly  more  than  re- 
strict. It  protects  us;  it  assists 
us  in  our  work;  it  develops  us 
into  better  men  and  women. 

The  Tasks  of  Government 

Let  us  take  these  tasks  in  or- 
der. First,  we  find  that  the  fore- 
most, and  also  the  most  expen- 
sive, is  the  protection  given 
us  by  our  government  against 
aggression  from  outside  the 
country,  and  aggression  from 
dangerous  individuals,  such  as 
criminals,  from  within. 

War  is  a  stern  and  disagreeable 
possibility.  Few  nations,  if  any, 
have  ever  been  exempt  from  pro- 
tecting themselves  and  their 
citizens  at  some  time  in  their 
careers  against  the  attack  of 
some  other  nation.  All  govern- 
ment must,  therefore,  be  fore- 
armed. All  nations  have  had  to 
spend  vast  sums  for  defense.  It 
will  always  be  so  until  nations, 
acting  through  their  govern- 
ments, learn  to  live  peaceably  to- 
gether, even  while  holding  dif- 
ferent opinions. 

Danger  From  Within 

Equally  as  important  to  the  cit- 
izen as  the  safeguarding  of  his 


The  great  task  of  government  is  to  protect  us  from 
danger  from  the  outside  and  from  danger  from  within. 
It  must,  for  instance,  build  STRONG  FORTS.  Forts 
are  built  to  guard  coast  and  boundary  lines.  Fortu- 
nately no  forts  are  needed  to  guard  our  long  boundary 
line  to  the  north.    Neither  has  Canada  built  forts.    The 


government  must  build  POWERFUL  BATTLESHIPS, 
cruisers,  destroyers  and  submarines.     It  must  protect 


us  with  FLEETS  OF  AIRPLANES.  In  brief,  it 
must  maintain  at  all  times  for  instant  service  a  power- 
ful navy  and  a  well-equipped  and  trained  army.  Thus 
does  the  government  protect  us  from  danger  from  the 
outside.     All  nations  so  protect  their  citizens. 


136 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


There  are  dangers  from  within  from  which  we  need 
the  protection  of  the  government.  Every  government 
must  provide  policemen,  courts  and  JAILS  for  those 
who  have  broken  the  law.  These  prisoners  are  at 
dinner  at  Sing   Sing   prison,   N.  Y.     The   government 


^     '  -  ^2|9|||H..^^H'  1 

m^M  l^^Miii^  *mKam'''''  ' 

also  helps  us  to  make  a  better  living.  The  POST 
OFFICE  DEPARTMENT  carries  our  letters,  checks, 
money  orders  and  parcels.  It  safeguards  our  money 
In  its  postal  savings  banks.    The  government  protects 


the  interests  of  the  author,  artist  and  inventor  by  grant- 
ing copyrights  and  patents.  THE  U.  S.  PATENT 
OFFICE  is  in  Washington.  Over  40,000  patents  were 
granted  by  this  office  in  1921. 


country  from  attack  by  other  na- 
tions, is  the  government's  task 
of  protecting  the  life,  property 
and  reputation  of  its  citizens 
from  danger  within.  Every  gov- 
ernment must  provide  policemen, 
courts,  jails  and  Bremen. 

A  Better  Living 

The  government  does  much 
more  than  protect  its  citizens. 
It  assists  us  to  make  a  better  liv- 
ing. This  is  the  second  great 
task  of  government.  Business 
can  be  carried  on  more  effec- 
tively. Professional  men,  such 
as  doctors  and  teachers,  are  given 
opportunity  to  secure  better 
training  through  professional 
schools  supported  by  the  state. 
Working  people  are  helped  to 
become  better  workmen  through 
trade  schools.  The  government 
actually  assists  us  to  make  more 
money.  It  conducts  many  activi- 
ties which  advance  us  personal- 
ly, and  make  for  better  business 
conditions.  The  United  States 
Post  OfRce,  for  example,  is  a 
great  help  to  every  citizen.  The 
rapidity  and  certainty  with 
which  ■  it  delivers  the  mails 
is  a  vital  aid  to  business. 
Checks,  money  orders,  con- 
tracts, must  be  sent  through  the 
mail;  and  if  the  postal  service 
were  corrupt,  or  badly  managed, 
business  would  be  greatly  ham- 
pered. Through  the  govern- 
ment's guarantee  of  copyrights, 
writers  and  publishers  of  books 
are  protected.  An  inventor  of  a 
new  device  is  also  protected  by 
the  Government's  Patent  Office, 
which  grants  a  patent  keeping 
others  from  using  the  invention 
without  permission. 

The  Federal  Reserve  Board,  a 
great  banking  institution  organ- 
ized by  the  United  States  Gov- 


TAXES      AND      GOVERNMENT 


137 


ernment,  promotes  good  business 
conditions.  Through  this  Board's 
control  of  credit,  the  possibility 
of  a  panic,  such  as  the  terrible 
one  which  occurred  in  1893,  is 
greatly  lessened.  Panics  cause 
the  loss  of  millions  of  dollars, 
millions  of  people  are  thrown  out 
of  work,  and  thousands  of  firms 
and  corporations  go  bankrupt. 

Better  Men  and  Women 

In  addition  to  assisting  citi- 
zens in  their  daily  work,  the 
government  also  helps  them  to 
become  wiser  men  and  women. 
It  wishes  its  citizens  to  be 
well  educated  so  that  they  may 
vote  intelligently  and  thus  make 
America  a  better  place  to  live  in. 

This  is  the  third  great  task  of 
the  government.  Public  educa- 
tion, public  recreation  and  public 
health  facilities  are  provided  so 
that  every  citizen  may  have  the 
advantages  of  knowledge,  play 
and  good  health.  Schools,  parks, 
playgrounds,  libraries,  museums, 
zoological  gardens  and  art  gal- 
leries are  free  to  all,  so  that  each 
individual,  if  he  has  the  desire, 
may  avail  himself  of  the  accu- 
mulated treasures  of  the  world 
to  be  found  in  books,  music, 
sculpture  and  pictures.  A  few 
years  ago  these  things  were  only 
for  the  wealthy.  The  govern- 
ment now  provides  them  for  all 
of  us.  One  of  the  great  ideals 
of  America  is  to  give  all  its  citi- 
zens the  opportunity  to  broaden 
and  deepen  their  minds. 

Government  Tasks  Greater 

The  tasks  undertaken  by  the 
government  twenty  years  ago 
were  much  fewer  in  number  than 
those  carried  on  today.  To  many 
individuals  the  automobile,  the 
electric    light    and    the    bathtub 


■1 

'«■ 

« ^'^  ^w^; 

JX     *^/' 

'"'  iBilBllli  '*  '^"^■'H''  ■■if"''" 

\4iiililiip^ 

The  government  not  only  protects  us  but  it  also 
educates  us  and  provides  for  our  health.  There  are 
over  8,000  free  PUBLIC  LIBRARIES  in  the  United 
States.     The    Library   of   Congress,    Washington,    has 


•■"^■--«iM*.»-l 

m^ 

the  largest  collection  of  books  in  the  Western  Hem- 
isphere, and  third  largest  in  the  world,  it  contains 
over  2,831,000  printed  books  and  pamphlets.  Many 
cities  have  art  galleries  and  MUSEUMS  for  the  free 
entertainment  and  education  of  the  people.  The 
Smithsonian  Institution  and  the  U.  S.  National  Mu- 
seum,  Washington,   are  free  to  the  public.     All   this 


costs  the  government  a  great  deal  of  money.  The 
great  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK  alone  today  spends  a 
third  as  much  money  as  it  cost  to  operate  the  whole 
United  States  Government  in   1910. 


138 


WE      AND       OUR       GOVERNMENT 


Our  government  gives  us  greater  service  than  it  used 
to  give.  A  few  years  ago  it  paid  little  attention  to 
the  health  of  the  children  in  our  public  schools.  Now, 
even  THEIR  TEETH  ARE  CAREFULLY  EXAMINED 


and    instruction    is   given   on    how  to    preserve   them. 
The  government  also  BUILDS  STREETS,  water  sys- 


tems and  sewers.  It  plans  and  maintains  BEAUTI- 
FUL PARKS  and  playgrounds.  All  this  service  costs 
money.  We  often  object  to  the  sum  the  government 
demands  from  us  to  pay  for  the  service  that  it  gives. 
We  object  far  more  if  we  do  not  get  the  service. 


have  become  necessities,  while 
to  the  government  many  things 
formerly  considered  unnecessary 
have  become  necessary.  Better 
education,  more  recreation, 
cleaner  streets,  more  parks,  well- 
planned  cities  are  being  con- 
stantly demanded,  and  in  conse- 
quence the  cost  of  maintaining 
the  government  is  always  in- 
creasing. The  great  city  of  New 
York  alone,  today,  spends  one- 
third  as  much  money  as  it  cost 
to  operate  the  whole  United 
States  Government  in   1910. 

The  more  complex  life  be- 
comes and  the  more  the  con- 
science of  the  people  is  aroused, 
the  more  government  is  asked 
to  do.  The  schools  of  today, 
especially  in  the  larger  cities, 
not  only  train  the  child's  mind 
in  many  subjects,  but  also  under- 
take the  improvement  of  the 
child's  health.  Today  there  is 
medical  inspection  of  children — 
especially  of  their  teeth  and 
eyes;  and  nurses'  rooms,  elabor- 
ate gymnasiums  and  playgrounds 
are  part  of  the  equipment.  Even- 
ing classes,  free  lectures  and 
other  forms  of  adult  education 
are  now  provided  by  many  states. 

Health  Departments 

Modern  medical  knowledge 
regarding  typhoid,  tuberculosis, 
measles,  diphtheria,  yellow  fever 
and  smallpox,  have  brought 
about  a  vast  increase  in  the  work 
of  public  health  departments. 
Cities  are  learning  that  munici- 
pal cleanliness  is  necessary  to 
combat  the  spread  of  disease. 
The  fight  against  mosquitoes 
and  flies,  the  constant  and  care- 
ful disposal  of  garbage,  well- 
constructed  sewers,  a  pure  water 
supply,  are  modern  needs.  We 
know    that    without    them,    es- 


TAXES      AND       GOVERNMENT 


139 


pecially  in  our  crowded  cities, 
disease  would  grow  to  frightful 
proportions.  Only  a  few  years 
ago,  all  cities  were  at  times 
swept  by  plagues  and  epidemics. 
All  these  things  mean  taxes, 
and  more  taxes.  But  they  have 
added  to  the  average  length  of 
human  life  by  more  than  fifteen 
years.  Is  that  not  worth  while? 
Even  from  the  financial  view- 
point it  surely  pays  well. 

War  and  Taxes 

The  statement  is  often  heard 
that  the  National  Government  of 
the  United  States  is  spending 
seventy-five  per  cent  or  more 
of  its  income  on  past  and  pos- 
sible future  wars.  This  is  true. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  under  the  American  form  of 
government  certain  powers  and 
duties  are  given  to  the  Federal 
Government  and  among  them 
the  most  important  is  that  of 
defending  us  from  the  attacks 
of  other  nations. 

In  America,  most  of  the  ac- 
tivities which  closely  touch  the 
citizen's  life  are  looked  after 
by  state  and  local  governments, 
while  those  that  concern  the  na- 
tion as  a  whole  are  administered 
by  the  National  Government. 
Possibly  half  or  more  than  half 
of  our  taxes  in  normal  times  are 
for  the  purposes  of  state  or  local 
governments.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  such  a  large  portion 
of  the  money  that  Congress 
appropriates  goes  toward  mili- 
tary preparedness. 

The  Great  World  War 
called  for  enormous  expendi- 
tures which  increased  the  pub- 
lic debt  to  many  times  its  for- 
mer figure.  During  the  war, 
money  was  spent  freely.  It  is 
always  so.     Vast  sums  are  raised. 


The  sum  in  taxes  that  at  present  we  have  to  pay  to 
the  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT  alone,  is  very  heavy. 
This  is  due  to  the  Great  World  War.  Because  of  this 
war  it  had  to  spend  vast  sums.     It  had  to  borrow  bil- 


lions of  dollars  from  its  citizens.  The  Government  did 
this  through  Liberty  and  Victory  Loans  and  the  sale 
of  WAR   SAVING   STAMPS   (W.  S.  S.). 


140 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


We  should  meet  all  these  war  (debts  cheerfully, 
ungrudgingly,  gladly.  The  men  who  FOUGHT  IN 
THE    TRENCHES,    who    manned    our    ships,    risked 


health  and  life.  Today,  many  of  them  are  SICK  OR 
CRIPPLED,  and  are  being  nursed  back  to  health  and 
strength   in  the   great   U.   S.  Army   Hospitals.     Thou- 


sands GAVE  THEIR  ALL— their  lives.  If  our  taxes 
are  heavier  because  of  the  help  that  the  government 
gives  these  soldiers  and  sailors,  or  their  families,  what 
of  it!  What  is  the  payment  of  a  tax  measured  against 
the  giving  of  a  life!  The  cost  of  the  Great  World 
War  to  the  United  States  was  over  Fifty-One  Billion 
Dollars.  Included  in  this  huge  sum  are  loans  of  Ten 
Billion  Dollars  to  our  Allies  in  the  war. 


Quick  results  are  secured.  There 
is  little  time  for  careful  thought. 
For  many  years  to  come  not  only 
the  United  States  but  the  whole 
world  will  carry  a  huge  bur- 
den of  taxation.  The  people 
must  pay  these  debts  out  of  their 
earnings.  The  United  States 
did  very  great  things  during 
the  World  War.  What  was 
done  was  worth  doing ;  we  should 
not  grumble  now  because  we 
have  to  pay  the  bills.  As  a 
nation  we  must  pay  these  war 
mortgages  represented  by  Lib- 
erty and  Victory  Loan  bonds. 
These  debts  and  their  interest 
charges  are  the  largest  items 
in  the  present  cost  of  our 
National  Government.  When 
these  debts  are  cancelled,  a  great 
hindrance  to  national  progress 
will  be  removed. 

Certain  other  definite  war  obli- 
gations must  be  paid.  We  are 
indebted  to  the  men  who  paid 
the  price  of  war — the  gassed,  the 
shell-shocked,  the  wounded,  the 
diseased.  It  is  going  to  cost  us 
only  money — they  risked  life  and 
health.  We  should  care  for  them 
cheerfully,  ungrudgingly,  gladly. 
What  is  a  tax  measured  against 
a  human  life? 

Federal  Government  Activities 

The  Federal  Government  does 
a  great  many  things,  however, 
beside  protecting  us  from  ene- 
mies. As  in  the  case  of  local 
and  state  governments  it  has  un- 
dertaken many  new  activities 
formerly  thought  to  be  outside 
the  tasks  of  government. 

Under  the  direction  of  the 
President  the  ten  great  Execu- 
tive Departments  are  working 
for  the  good  of  the  people  in 
all  the  states.  The  Department 
of  Commerce  is  assisting  Amer- 


TAXES      AND       GOVERNMENT 


141 


ican  business  men  to  sell  their 
goods  abroad.  The  Department 
of  Agriculture  is  aiding  the 
farmer  in  a  thousand  different 
ways.  Many  more  illustrations 
might  be  given  to  show  the  way 
in  which  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment is  caring  for  our  interests. 

Buying  Government  Service 

It  is  well  to  remember,  when 
we  speak  of  the  high  cost  of 
government,  that  it  is  selling  us 
more  and  more  of  these  useful 
services  and  that  our  taxes  are 
merely  a  payment,  and  a  legiti- 
mate one,  for  such  services. 
When  a  man  hires  a  plumber  to 
thaw  out  the  pipes  which  have 
frozen  in  his  home,  he  expects 
as  a  matter  of  course  to  pay  the 
bill.  We  hire  our  government 
to  give  us  good  water,  to  keep 
our  streets  clean,  to  help  us  sell 
our  goods  abroad. 

From  our  government  come 
countless  services  which  can  only 
be  performed  through  such 
agencies  which  act  for  all  of  us. 
Furthermore,  what  we  spend  in 
taxes  for  such  services,  in  many 
cases,  actually  saves  us  hundreds 
of  dollars  in  personal  expenses. 

Public  health  measures  have 
greatly  reduced  the  likelihood 
of  our  contracting  disease.  Child 
mortality  today  is  half,  in  many 
cities  less  than  half,  that  of 
, twenty-five  or  fifty  years  ago. 
Our  taxes  have  helped  to  bring 
about  this  change.  Money 
spent  on  education  is  also  well 
spent.  A  democratic  govern- 
ment, depending  upon  a  pre- 
judiced and  ignorant  body  of 
citizens  to  exercise  the  fran- 
chise and  elect  representatives, 
will  eventually  fail. 


The  governments  work  in  our  behalf  has  in  many 
cases  produced  wonderful  results.  CHILD  MORTAL- 
ITY, today,  in  many  cities,  is  less  than  half  what  it 


was  twenty-five  years  ago.     ILLITERACY  is  steadily 


decreasing.     The  safety  of  Democracy  rests  on  THE 
VOTES   OF   INTELLIGENT   MEN   AND   WOMEN. 


142 


WE      AND       OUR       GOVERNMENT 


The  Federal  Government  secures  taxes  from  many 
sources.  GOODS  THAT  ARE  BROUGHT  INTO  THIS 
COUNTRY  are  taxed.    This  form  of  taxation  is  called 


a  tariff.  The  most  important  U.  S.  CUSTOMS 
HOUSE  is  in  New  York  City.  The  U.  S.  Customs 
Receipts,   1921,   were  $308,564,391.     The   government 


taxes  nearly  everything  that  is  sold  at  A  CIGAR 
STAND.  Tobacco,  in  any  form,  has  always  been  con- 
sidered a  luxury  and  so  has  always  been  taxed.  Dur- 
ing the  war  many  things  sold  at  a  soda  fountain  were 
taxed.     Many  of  these  taxes  have  been  removed. 


What  the  Government  Taxes 

Debts,  interest  charges,  and 
the  many  activities  of  the 
government  require  a  great  deal 
of  money.  The  annual  cost  of 
government  —  local,  state  and 
national — in  the  United  States 
before  the  Great  War  was  four 
billion  dollars.  Since  that  time 
this  vast  amount  has  been 
greatly  increased.  Not  all  of 
this  money  is  raised  in  taxation, 
however,  as  the  government 
secures  part  of  its  expenses  in 
other  ways,  such  as  the  sale  of 
public  lands,  receipts  from  the 
post-office,  water  rates,  and  pay- 
ments for  other  services. 

In  taxing,  the  government 
uses  many  methods  to  secure 
money  to  carry  on  the  public 
business.  The  National  Govern- 
ment, for  example,  levies  an 
income  tax  which  takes  a  per- 
centage of  the  amount  earned  by 
an  individual  over  and  above  a 
certain  stated  sum,  such  as  one 
thousand  dollars  for  a  single 
person,  or  two  thousand,  or 
twenty-five  hundred  dollars  for 
a  married  person.  The  more  you 
earn,  the  greater  the  proportion 
taken  by  the  government.  Cer- 
tain foreign  goods — shoes,  toys, 
chemicals,  etc. — coming  into  the 
United  States,  are  taxed.  This 
method  of  raising  money  is  called 
a  tariff.  In  former  years  this 
was  the  most  important  source 
of  national  revenue. 

The  National  Government  also 
taxes  liquors  (for  medicinal  and 
scientific  use),  tobacco,  playing 
cards  and  oleomargarine.  Such 
taxes  are  called  Internal  Revenue 
Taxes.  Before  the  Prohibition 
Act  was  passed  a  very  large 
amount  was  secured  from  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  liquors 
for    beverages.      The    National 


TAXES      AND       GOVERNMENT 


143 


Government  also  taxes  corpora- 
tions, and  at  times  imposes  con- 
sumption taxes  upon  luxuries, 
such  as  fur  coats,  silk  stockings 
and  theatre  tickets. 

State  Governments 

State  governments  also  use  a 
variety  of  taxes.  Like  the  Na- 
tional Government  some  states 
tax  incomes.  When  people  die 
and  leave  large  sums  of  money 
to  relatives,  or  other  people,  the 
state  may  take  a  portion  for  its 
own  work.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
income  tax,  the  state  increases 
the  proportion  it  takes  of  an  in- 
heritance according  to  the  size 
of  the  amount  of  money  left.  It 
may  also  take  a  greater  percent- 
age if  the  individual  to  whom  the 
money  is  left  is  simply  a  distant 
relative,  rather  than  a  wife  or 
child.  When  the  inheritance  tax 
is  increased  for  such  reasons  it  is 
called  a  Graduated  or  Progres- 
sive Tax.  State  governments 
also  tax  real  estate,  mortgages, 
and  corporations. 

Local  governments,  acting 
under  state  law,  also  levy  their 
own  taxes  for  their  own  pur- 
poses. To  a  large  extent  real 
estate  taxes  furnish  the  bulk 
of  the  local  government  rev- 
enue. Retail  stores,  peddlers, 
push-cart  men,  may  be  required 
to  pay  a  tax  to  do  business.  A 
new  and  ever-increasing  source 
of  revenue  has  been  found  in  the 
taxing  of  automobiles.  There 
are  slightly  over  11,000,000  auto- 
mobiles and  trucks  in  service  in 
the  United  States.  Each  must 
carry  a  license,  which  is  a  tax. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  automo- 
bile costs  the  government  a 
great  deal  of  money,  through 
making  good  roads  and  traffic 
policemen  necessary. 


We  must  pay  taxes  not  only  to  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment but  also  to  our  state  government.  Then  there  are 
local  government  taxes  to  pay.  The  state  and  local 
governments  secure  the  great  bulk  of  their  taxes 
from    REAL   ESTATE— the  land   and   buildings.      Mil- 


lions of  dollars  are  also  secured  from  owners  of 
automobiles.  Over  11,000,000  AUTOMOBILE  LI- 
CENSES were  issued  last  year  by  the  state   govern- 


%\-              '■  "■  .'".^■Hlf         ■  'i: 

?S              .      ! 

iW--y  •  V    .     '%   """  wj^fepc.-!  _ 

^  ■       -^^ 

'i^i'^' 

'-^r**               ^^IBBH 

^^^^^H^Hb  H^HhH  a^H** 

ments.  PEDDLERS  AND  PUSH  CART  MEN  pay  a 
tax  to  the  governments  of  the  cities  in  which  they  do 
business.  A  good  part  of  the  money  that  we  pay  in 
taxes  goes  to  state  and  local  governments. 


144 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


It  is  very  difficult  for  a  government  to  impose  a 
fair  tax  on  everyone.  It  tries  to  make  the  burden  of 
taxation  as  light  as  possible  on  wage  earners — espe- 
cially THOSE  WITH  LARGE  FAMILIES.     Those  who 


g 

W^S^B^Kt^K^^Kmt^jiM^^ 

enjoy  large  incomes  and  LIVE  IN  LUXURY  should 
pay,  in  proportion,  much  more.  This  is  just,  although 
no  man,  rich  or  poor,  should  be  exempt  from  paying 


1                                                                    >;.,,., 

a  tax.  The  government  also  tries  to  make  the  payment 
of  a  tax  as  convenient  as  possible.  For  this  reason 
the  INCOME  TAX  may  be  paid  in  quarterly  install- 
ments. The  government  also  tries  to  make  a  tax  as 
little   as  possible;    enough   to   pay  expenses — only. 


These  illustrations  show  the 
many  ways  used  by  different 
parts  of  the  American  govern- 
ment to  get  money  to  pay  their 
separate  bills.  A  resident  in 
America  must  pay  directly  or  in- 
directly village  or  city,  county, 
state  and  Federal  taxes. 

Dangers  in  Taxation 

This  variety  in  taxation  meth- 
ods makes  it  necessary  to  define 
a  good  taiX.  The  power  of  taxa- 
tion is  a  very  dangerous,  although 
an  absolutely  necessary  and  use- 
ful power  of  government.  Chief 
Justice  Marshall  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  once  said 
that  the  power  to  tax  is  the 
power  to  destroy.  He  meant 
that  this  great  weapon  of  the 
government,  if  used  thought- 
lessly, unwisely,  or  viciously, 
might  destroy  any  business. 
The  American  Colonists  of 
pre-Revolutionary  times  real- 
ized the  danger  in  wrong  meth- 
ods of  taxation  when  they  coined 
the  phrase  "  Taxation  Without 
Representation." 

The  makers  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  to 
safeguard  the  people  against  the 
wrong  use  of  this  power,  specifi- 
cally limited  the  National  Gov- 
ernment in  its  power  of  taxation. 
Congress  may  only  levy  taxes  in 
order  to  " — pay  the  debts  and 
provide  for  the  common  defense 
and  general  welfare  of  the 
United  States."  All  taxes  im- 
posed by  Congress  must  be  uni- 
form throughout  the  United 
States.  The  Constitution  also 
prohibits  any  tax  or  duty  upon 
articles  exported. 

What  Is  a  Good  Tax? 

Taxes  may  be  good  or  bad. 
Every  government  must  be  care- 


TAXES      AND       GOVERNMENT 


145 


ful  how  it  taxes  its  citizens. 
Adam  Smith,  the  father  of 
modern  icotlomics,  in  a  remark- 
able book  called  "The  Wealth 
of  Nations,"  published  in  1776, 
laid  down  rules  about  taxes 
which  are  recognized  as  sound 
even  today,  and  with  which 
every  citizen  should  be  familiar. 
First,  he  thought  that  citizens 
should  be  taxed  according  to 
their  ability  to  pay.  This  means 
that  wealthy  people  should  pay 
in  proportion  a  greater  amount 
than  poor  people.  It  does  not 
mean,  of  course,  that  the  wealthy 
should  pay  all  the  taxes.  In 
the  second  place,  a  good  tax 
should  be  levied  at  the  time  and 
in  the  manner  most  convenient 
for  the  citizens  to  pay.  Lastly, 
a  tax  should  take  out  of  the  citi- 
zen's pocket  as  little  as  possible 
above  the  amount  actually  needed 
to  run  the  government. 

The  Justice  of  Taxation 

Taxation  is  compulsory  pay- 
ment for  government  services. 
A  percentage  of  the  income  of 
every  citizen  is  taken.  Taxation 
always  falls,  in  the  end,  upon  us 
as  individuals.  When  a  man 
rents  a  house,  his  rent  includes 
the  tax  upon  the  property. 
When  he  buys  a  suit  of  clothes, 
included  in  the  price  that  he  pays 
the  retailer  is  a  percentage  of 
many  taxes.  For  instance,  there 
is  the  business  tax  of  the  retailer, 
the  tax  on  the  real  estate — the 
land  on  which  the  store  is  built 
and  the  building — the  corpora- 
tion tax  of  the  manufacturer  of 
the  cloth,  and  the  tax  on  the 
land  on  which  the  sheep  is  raised 
or  the  cotton  grown.  Just  a  few 
of  the  taxes  which  the  selling 
price  helps  to  cover  have  been 
named.    In  like  manner  taxes  are 


Taxes  that  have  been  mentioned  are  direct  taxes. 
All  pay  taxes  indirectly.  Included  in  THE  RENT 
THAT  WE  PAY  FOR  A  HOUSE  or  apartment  is 
part   of   the    real    estate   tax   that   the    owner   of  the 


building    must    pay.      The   corporation    tax   that   the 
MANUFACTURER  OF  CLOTHES  has  to  pay,  makes 


^' 

^^    .       *         *        '        ^^:.      «^     ^rti-    1 

^K^KKMK^    ■  'M 

*"  "^  m    T 

^M 

i '  ,|i| 

(■■HHII^^^HI 

m-/  *.  .laMik. 

our  suit  cost  a  little  more.  The  same  is  true  when 
we  BUY  MEAT  AT  THE  BUTCHER'S,  or  provisions 
at  the  grocer's.  We  cannot  buy  anything  without  pay- 
ing (indirectly)  a  tax.  The  last  things  that  a  govern- 
ment will  place  direct  taxes  upon  are  life's  necessi- 
ties— bread,  for  instance. 


146 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


The  government  is  faced  with  two  problems.  It 
must  constantly  plan  new  ways  to  raise  money 
through  taxation.  It  must  constantly  plan  >new  ways 
to  cut  down  expenses.  Hence,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  consults  with  A  COMMITTEE  OF  CON- 
GRESS   as    to    the    best    way    to    solve    the    first 


problem.  Just  as  every  individual  should  make  his 
expenditures  come  within  his  weekly  wages  so  every 
government  must  bring  its  expenses  within  the 
amount  of  money  that  can  be  raised.     But  however 


the  problem  of  taxation  is  solved  the  average  man 
who  reads  of  the  vast  sums  the  government  needs, 
will  ever  wonder  WHAT  IT  DOES  WITH  ALU  THE 
MONEY  IT  RECEIVES  IN  TAXES. 


included  in  the  pricie  that  we  pay 
our  butcher  for  the  steak  or 
chops  that  we  buy. 

In  making  its  taxation  plan,  the 
government  must  be  very  care- 
ful not  to  tax  some  of  its  citizens 
or  some  of  its  industries  too 
heavily.  If,  for  example,  it 
should  raise  all  its  money 
through  a  tax  on  real  estate,  it 
might  make  rents  so  high  as  to 
cause  good  houses  to  be  out  of 
the  reach  of  people  living  on 
small  wages. 

The  government  must  also  be 
careful  not  to  tax  business  too 
heavily  for  that  might  destroy  or 
drive  away  trade  which,  of 
course,  means  less  prosperity  for 
everyone.  Taxation  is  a  difficult 
matter.  It  is  not  easy  to  find  a 
tax  which  is  just  to  all. 

Unreasonable  Demands 

Because  a  very  great  sum  of 
money  is  taken  in  by  the  govern- 
ment in  the  form  of  taxes,  many 
citizens  expect  it  to  return  to 
them  or  their  district  anything 
they  may  want.  The  inhabitants 
of  a  town  think  nothing  of 
asking  the  government  to  build 
a  post-office,  for  instance,  that 
would  in  size  and  architectural 
beauty  be  suitable  for  a  good- 
sized  city. 

Small  boys  are  constantly  ask- 
ing their  parents  for  a  great  many 
things  that  they  see  in  store  win- 
dows. They  believe  their  par- 
ents have  unlimited  means. 
Many  citizens  have  the  same 
point  of  view  toward  their 
government  as  boys  have  to- 
wards their  parents.  They  think 
the  government  has  unlimited 
resources  without  stopping  to 
realize  that  each  individual  must 
pay  his  share  of  the  govern- 
ment's   cost    out    of    his    own 


TAXES      AND      GOVERNMENT 


147 


pocket.  Just  as  every  individual  should 
make  his  expenditures  come  within  his 
weekly  wage,  so  every  government  must 
bring  expenses  within  the  amount  of 
money  that  can  be  raised. 

The  government  cannot  do  everything 
that  we,  as  citizens,  think  it  should  do. 
A  good  government  recognizes  this  fact, 
plans  its  budget  accordingly,  and  is 
careful  not  to  undertake  too  many  new 
activities  which  will  make  burdensome 
and  unwise  taxation  necessary. 

Some  of  Our  Complex  Problems 

There  are  complex  problems  demand- 
ing immediate  solution.  At  times 
there  is  waste  and  inefficiency,  graft 
and  corruption  in  the  government  ser- 
vice. This  is  true  of  every  human 
organization.  Even  the  most  efficient 
business  organization  falls  short  of 
one  hundred  per  cent  perfection.  We 
have  the  right,  however,  to  get  as  near 
one  hundred  per  cent  value  for  each  dol- 
lar of  taxation  as  possible.  We  should 
see  that  we  get  value  for  our  taxes. 

During  the  last  few  years,  as  a  result 
of  the  war,  this  nation  has  developed 
a  habit  of  extravagant  spending,  both 
individually  and  governmentally.  In 
fact,  the  whole  world  has  contracted 
the  disease.  Now,  as  a  nation,  we  must 
economize.  We  are  beginning  to  recog- 
nize this  fact.  Congress  has  provided 
for  a  Director  of  Budgets  under  the 
President  of  the  United  States.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  important  steps  that 
the  Government  has  ever  taken.  Govern- 
mental extravagance  must  be  eliminated. 
National  thrift  and  the  citizen's  effort 


toward  strict  economy  are  necessary  if 
we  are  to  lift  the  burden  of  taxation. 

The  United  States  has  a  new  point 
of  view  toward  debt  and  waste.  An 
aroused  public  opinion  is  demanding 
economy  in  Federal,  State  and  Muni- 
cipal Government.  But,  as  President 
Harding  has  said :  "  It  is  not  easy  to 
change  the  habits  of  a  country;  it  is 
not  easy  to  stand  against  those  who 
want  to  spend." 

Reduction  of  expenditure  means  re- 
lieving men  of  their  jobs.  Inertia,  old 
methods,  loose  standards,  must  be  met 
and  conquered  at  every  turn.  Pol- 
iticians protest  over  the  elimination  of 
jobs;  communities  object  because  cer- 
tain buildings,  such  as  post-offices,  have 
not  been  erected  in  their  home  towns. 
The  men  who  undertake  the  work  of 
reducing  national  expenditures,  or  state 
expenditures,  or  local  expenditures,  will 
always  have  the  cheap  and  vicious  po- 
litical forces  of  the  country  arrayed 
against  them.  They  must  face  the 
whine  of  the  office-holder,  the  requests 
of  the  office-seeker,  and  the  attacks  of 
the  politician.  A  President,  a  Governor, 
or  a  Mayor,  attempting  to  reduce  ex- 
penditures, has  a  difficult  task. 

It  is  easy  to  spend,  easy  to  build  up 
the  political  machine  by  giving  out  jobs. 
To  turn  about  and  reduce  the  number  of 
useless  employes  and  to  eliminate  un- 
necessary expense  is  difficult.  Many 
toes  are  pinched  in  the  process.  Yet 
every  citizen  should  fearlessly  advocate 
and  support  the  removal  of  the  evil 
triplets  of  government:  Waste,  In- 
efficiency and  Corruption. 


"It  is  not  your  father,  alone,  who  paid  for  your  schooling;  your  uncle, 
your  neighbor,  those  who  know  you  and  those  who  never  saw  you,  are  taxed 
to  provide  the  money  that  educates  you.  Why?  Because  the  people  of  America 
decided  that  they  would  govern  themselves  and  that  as  a  people,  united  in  a  gov- 
ernment, they  would  educate  the  growing  generation  in  the  principles  which  dis- 
tinguish the  American  government  from  the  autocracies  of  the  old  world." — 
William  McAndrew. 


(^}The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


ONE  FLAG,  ONE  PEOPLE,  UNITED  UNDER  A  COMMON  GOVERNMENT 

We  have  grown   into  one  people,    meeting  together,  talking  together,  working  and  doing 

business  together 


CHAPTER  X 


The  National  Government 


"Government  OF  the  People,  BFthe  People,  FOR  the  People" 


THE  reasons  for  the  separation  of 
the  United  States  Government  into 
executive,  legislative  and  judiciary 
branches,  have  already  been  explained  in 
the  chapter  on  the  Mechanics  oi  Gov- 
ernment. The  text  of  the  Constitution 
which  you  have  read,  gives  the  de- 
tails of  this  three-fold  separation.  There 
are  many  other  important  facts,  how- 
ever, about  the 
President  and  his 
Cabinet,  Congress 
and  its  legislative 
work  and  the  Fed- 
eral courts  and 
their  organization, 
which  one  must 
know  if  he  is  to 
understand  clearly 
how  the  American 
Government  actual- 
ly works. 


of 


The    President 
the   United 
States 

The  President  of 
the  United  States  is 
the  outstanding  fig- 
ure in  our  govern- 
ment. The  position 
of  Chief  Executive 
of  this  nation  places  the  individual  who 
holds  it  among  the  few  leading  political 
statesmen  of  the  day.  His  name  is 
known  the  world  over.  His  constitu- 
tional powers,  plus  his  opportunities  to 
lead  and  influence  the  great  economic, 
moral,  and  spiritual  forces  of  America, 
stamp  him  as  probably  the  most  power- 
ful executive  in  existence.  Indeed,  to- 
day, the  President  of  the  United  States 
has  become,  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  an  international  figure. 


True  Democracy 

"\A7E    hold     these 

^  ^  truths  to  be  self- 
evident,  that  all  men  are 
created  equal;  that  they 
are  endowed  by  their 
Creator  with  certain  un- 
alienable Rights;  that 
among  these  are  Life, 
Liberty,  and  the  pursuit 
of  Happiness.  That,  to 
secure  these  rights.  Gov- 
ernments are  instituted 
among  Men,  deriving 
their  just  powers  from 
the  consent  of  the  gov- 

erneCl  ...         Declaration  of  Independence 


The  Growth  of  the  Presidency 

It  was  not  expected  by  the  framers  of 
the  Constitution  that  the  President 
would  become  so  powerful  a  personage, 
but  the  growth  of  the  nation,  and  the 
increasing  complexity  of  our  national 
life,  have  brought  a  decided  increase  in 
his  influence.  The  office  of  the  President 
has  steadily  grown  in  strength  in  com- 
parison with  other 
parts  of  the  govern- 
ment, until  today, 
the  American  people 
look  largely  to  the 
President  for  na- 
tional leadership. 

The  same  ten- 
dency towards  in- 
creasing the  impor- 
tance of  the  execu- 
tive is  to  be  seen 
in  state  governors 
and  city  mayors. 
They,  too,  in  their 
respective  fields,  are 
looked  to  for  leader- 
ship and  have  much 
more  responsibility 
on  their  shoulders 
than  they  had  a  few 
decades  ago.  This 
growth  in  executive 
leadership  is  one  of  the  outstanding  de- 
velopments in  American  politics. 

The  strength  of  the  American  Presi- 
dent is  to  be  found,  first,  in  his  consti- 
tutional powers,  and,  second,  in  his 
national  prestige  and  his  political  leader- 
ship of  his  party.  The  President's  con- 
stitutional powers  may  be  discussed  unr 
der  six  main  headings,  viz.,  his  executive 
control,  appointments,  his  war  power,  his 
position  in  foreign  affairs,  his  legislative 
power,  and  his  right  to  grant  pardons. 


149 


150 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


George 
Washington 


Mount 
Vernon 


"FIRST  IN  WAR,  FIRST  IN  PEACE  AND  FIRST 
IN  THE  HEARTS  OF  HIS  COUNTRYMEN." 
These  words  were  spoken  in  an  eulogy  of  Washing- 
ton by  General  Richard  Henry  Lee,  before  both 
Houses  of  Congress,  December  26,  1799,  twelve  days 
after  the  death  of  "The  Father  of  his  Country." 


THE   WASHINGTON    MONUMENT 
This   notable    monument   is   555  feet   high,   55  feet 
square  at  the   base.      It   stands   in   the   Capital    City, 
Washington,  and  was  erected  (1848-1885)  in  honor  of 
George  Washington. 


His  Executive  Control 

The  President  is  the  head  of 
the  national  administration  and 
carries  the  enormous  responsi- 
bility of  looking  after  the  actual 
governmental  work,  which,  as 
the  country  increases  in  size, 
wealth  and  population,  has  be- 
c  o  m  e  almost  overwhelming. 
Only  a  robust,  vigorous  phys- 
ique, and  an  extraordinary  ca- 
pacity for  hard,  continuous  work, 
will  carry  a  man  through  the 
four  or  eight  years  of  never- 
ending  labor  which  the  American 
Government  requires  of  its  chief. 
This  is  even  more  true  in  war 
time,  as  the  lives  of  Lincoln 
and  Wilson,  both  war  presidents, 
illustrate. 

Appointments 

The  power  to  make  appoint- 
ments, together  with  the  right, 
in  most  cases,  to  remove  from 
office,  are  two  of  the  Presi- 
dent's most  important  and 
troublesome  duties.  Appoint- 
ments— many  thousands  of  them 
— take  much  of  his  time.  The 
appointment  of  important  offi- 
cials, judges,  ambassadors,  and 
the  members  of  such  bodies 
as  the  Tariff,  Inter-State  Com- 
merce, and  Federal  Trade  Com- 
missions, must  be  confirmed  by 
the  Senate. 

Naturally,  the  President  has 
not  enough  time  to  go  over  the 
records  of  all  candidates — only 
the  most  important  ones  get  his 
personal  attention  —  and  must 
rely  largely  upon  the  advice  of 
others.  If  the  appointment  to 
be  made  is  in  some  state,  for 
example,  the  Collector  of  the 
Port  of  New  York,  the  Senators 
in  that  state  are,  in  nearly  all 
such  cases,  consulted,  and  their 
advice  as  to  the  appointment  fol- 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


151 


lowed.      This    custom    is    called 
"  Senatorial  courtesy." 

Commander-in-Chief 

The  President  is  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy, 
with  the  right  and  duty  of  using 
the  entire  strength  of  the  nation 
to  compel  obedience  to  the  laws 
and  to  meet  foreign  invasion. 
His  executive  control  in  time  of 
war  is  enormously  increased. 
Through  his  Secretaries  of  War 
and  Navy,  he  makes  his  appoint- 
ments in  the  Army  and  Navy, 
directs  the  movements  of  troops 
and  ships,  and  initiates  all  mili- 
tary policies. 

His  Power  in  Foreign  Affairs 

His  constitutional  power  in 
foreign  affairs  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  President's  war 
powers,  for,  as  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy,  he 
can  take  measures  to  repel  an 
attack  on  the  part  of  a  foreign 
nation.  He  can  take  armed  action, 
in  fact,  against  another  nation, 
if  an  emergency  arises,  although 
only  Congress  has  the  legal 
power  to  declare  war.  President 
Wilson  took  armed  action 
against  Mexico  several  times 
during  his  administration  with- 
out a  declaration  of  war. 

It  is  within  the  President's 
power  to  recognize  the  inde- 
pendence of  other  countries, 
often  a  very  delicate  matter, 
especially  if  the  country  to  be 
recognized  has  just  declared  its 
independence.  All  treaties  with 
foreign  countries  are  first  negoti- 
ated by  the  President,  generally 
through  his  Secretary  of  State, 
or  some  specially  appointed 
diplomat.  To  be  formally  bind- 
ing upon  the  United  States,  how- 
ever, and  to  become  a  part  of  its 


George  Washington 
1789-1797 


John  Adams 
1797-1801 


Thomas  Jefferson 
1801-1809 


James  Madison 
1809-1817 


James  Monroe 
1817-1825 


John  Quincy  Adams 
1825-1829 


Andrew  Jackson  Martin  Van  Buren      William  H.  Harrison 

1829-1837  1837-1841  1841-1841 


Millard  Fillmore 
1850-1853 


Franklin  Pierce 
1853-1857 


James  Buchanan 
1857-1861 


Presidents  of  the   United  States  from  Wasliington 
to   Buchanan,  inclusive. 


152 


WE   AND   OUR   GOVERNMENT 


Abraham 
Lincoln 


Lincoln's 
Birth   Place 


LINCOLN'S  GETTYSBURG  ADDRESS 
"  Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers 
brought  forth  on  this  continent,  a  new  nation,  con- 
ceived in  Liberty,  and  dedicated  to  the  proposition 
that  all  men  are  created  equal.  Now  we  are  engaged 
in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or 
any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long 
endure.  We  are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war. 
We  have  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field,  as 
a  final  resting  place  for  those  who  here  gave  their 
lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether 
fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this.  But,  in  a 
larger  sense,  we  cannot  dedicate — we  cannot^conse- 
crate — we  cannot  hallow — this  ground.  The  brave 
men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here  have  conse- 
crated it,  far  above  our  poor  ipower  to  add  or  detract. 
The  world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember  what  we 
say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here. 
It  is  for  us  the  living,  rather,  to  be  dedicated  here 
to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here 
have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us 
to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining 
before  us — that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take 
increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which  they 
gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion — that  we 
here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have 
died  in  vain — that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have 
a  new  birth  of  freedom — and  that  government  of  the 
people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people,  shall  not  perish 
from  the  earth." — (Delivered  at  the  dedication  of  the  Na- 
tional   Cemetery,    November    19,    1863.) 


The  beautiful    Lincoln   Memorial   as  seen  from  the 
top  of  Washington  Monument  in  Washington. 


supreme  law,  treaties  must  be 
ratified  by  at  least  two-thirds  of 
the  Senate. 

His  Legislative  Power 

The  President  in  his  messages 
to  Congress  reports  upon  the 
condition  of  the  nation  and  rec- 
ommends necessary  legislation. 
As  he  speaks  with  the  voice  of 
the  nation  and  as  the  leader  of 
his  party,  his  recommendations 
always  carry  great  weight.  The 
President  may  also  call  special 
sessions  of  Congress  to  consider 
legislation  which  he  thinks  nec- 
essary and  which  has  not  been 
passed  in  the  regular  sessions. 
Often,  the  threat  to  call  a  special 
session,  especially  if  it  is  to  take 
place  during  the  summer  months, 
is  enough  to  make  Congress  do 
what  the  President  wishes. 

The  President's  disapproval 
of  legislation  may  be  shown 
in  several  ways.  Constitution- 
ally he  can  veto  congressional 
legislation,  and  very  often  a 
mere  hint  or  threat  that  he 
will  use  the  veto  is  enough 
to  block  legislation  which  he 
thinks  unwise,  since  it  is  a  diffi- 
cult thing  for  Congress  to  secure 
the  two-thirds  vote  necessary  to 
pass  a  vetoed  bill  over  the  Presi- 
dent's head.  Moreover,  con- 
gressmen who  belong  to  the 
same  party  as  the  President,  do 
not  care,  unless  the  issue  is  very 
great,  to  break  with  the  Presi- 
dent, as  it  may  possibly  injure 
their  own  chances  of  re-election. 
If  a  congressman  opposes  the 
President,  the  power  of  appoint- 
ment may  possibly  be  used  by 
the  President  to  throw  political 
strength  to  an  opponent  of  the 
congressman   in  his  own  party. 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


153 


His  Power  of  Pardon 

Among  the  important  consti- 
tutional rights  given  to  the 
President  is  that  of  granting  re- 
prieves and  pardons  for  offenses 
against  the  United  States,  except 
in  cases  of  impeachment.  The 
President's  pardon  power  does 
not  extend  to  offenses  against  in- 
dividual states,  which  is  solely 
the  right  of  a  governor. 

Requests  for  pardon  are 
usually  made  to  the  Department 
of  Justice,  or,  if  made  directly 
to  the  President,  referred  by 
him  to  this  Department  for 
recommendation.  The  Attorney 
General,  the  head  of  the  De- 
partment of  Justice,  investi- 
gates, consults  the  trial  judge 
and  prosecuting  attorney,  and 
makes  his  recommendations  to 
the  President.  The  latter  may 
do  as  he  pleases  with  the  recom- 
mendation. He  may  mark  the 
papers  with  the  words  "  pardon 
granted  "  or  "  pardon  refused," 
thus  giving  a  prisoner  his  free- 
dom or  keeping  him  in  prison  as 
he  thinks  best;  or  he  may  grant 
a  reprieve,  modifying  the  term 
or  nature  of  the  punishment. 

National  and  Party  Leadership 

In  addition  to  his  legal  and 
constitutional  powers,  the  very 
position  of  the  President  adds  to 
his  prestige  and  importance  and 
probably  makes  him  the  strong- 
est executive  in  the  world.  The 
people  of  all  the  states  have 
voted  for  him.  He  represents 
the  nation  in  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent way  from  a  senator  or  a  rep- 
resentative in  Congress. 

In  still  another  way  does  the 
President  possess  power.  A 
party  has  nominated  and  elected 
him.  While  in  office  he  is  the 
party's  natural  head.    The  party 


Warren  G.  Harding 
1921- 

The   White   House,   Official    Home   of  the   Presidents. 


Presidents   of   the    United    States   from    Lincoln   to 
Harding,  inclusive. 


154 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


The  President  of  the  United  States  is  the  head  of 
the  National  Administration.  He  carries  the  enor- 
mous responsibility  of  looking  after  the  actual  gov- 
ernmental work  which,  as  the  country  increases  in 
size,  wealth  and  population,  becomes  almost 
overwhelming.  HIS  CABINET,  COMPOSED  OF 
ELEVEN  MEMBERS,  assist  him  in  this  great  task. 
Each  member  of  the  President's  Cabinet,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Vice  President,  is  chosen  by  the 
President  and  becomes  the  head  or  Secretary  of  an 
Executivte  Department.  This  picture  shows  the  mem- 
bers of  President  Harding's  Cabinet  at  the  beginning 
of  his  administration,  March  4th,  1920.  President 
Harding  was  the  first  President  to  include  the  Vice 
President   in  the  Cabinet. 


looks  to  him  to  see  that  its  plat- 
form is  carried  out;  that  the  ad- 
ministration makes  a  good  record, 
so  that  when  an  appeal  is  made 
to  the  public  for  continued  sup- 
port at  the  next  election,  good 
campaign  arguments  will  be 
available.  He  is  his  party's  com- 
mander-in-chief ! 

His  Election 

The  method  of  electing  a 
President  is  confusing  to  many 
people.  The  original  plan  of 
election,  when  the  Constitution 
was  written,  was  that  the  Presi- 
dent and  Vice  President  should 
be  selected  by  a  group  of  men, 
an  Electoral  College,  appointed 
by  each  state  in  such  a  manner 
as  their  legislatures  directed. 
The  number  of  representatives 
in  this  electoral  college  from 
each  state  was  equal  to  the 
total  number  of  Senators  and 
Representatives  it  had  in  the 
United  States  Congress. 

These  representatives,  or  elec- 
tors, were  then  to  meet  in  state 
groups  and  select  the  candidates 
whom  they  thought  would  make 
the  best  President  and  the  best 
Vice  President.  Washington 
was  elected  unanimously  in  this 
manner.  After  Washington  re- 
tired, this  plan  developed  many 
defects,  and  was  later  somewhat 
modified,  but  we  have  kept  until 
to-day  the  old  machinery  of  elec- 
tors, that,  as  a  unit  in  each  state 
make  the  electoral  college  and 
cast  the  vote  for  President  and 
Vice  President.  For  all  prac- 
tical purposes,  however,  we  vote 
directly  for  a  President  and  a 
Vice  President. 

There  were  531  electoral  votes 
in  the  electoral  college  in  the 
last  Presidential  election.  A 
candidate,   to   be    elected    Presi- 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


155 


dent,  must  have  a  majority  of 
this  number.  In  case  of  a  tie, 
or  when  no  one  candidate  re- 
ceives a  majority  in  the  electoral 
college,  the  president  is  elected 
by  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Vice  President  by  the 
Senate.  If  the  President  should 
die,  he  is  succeeded,  first,  by  the 
Vice  President,  and  in  case  of 
the  latter's  death,  by  the  Mem- 
bers of  the  Cabinet,  in  the  order 
in  which  their  departments  have 
been  formed.  The  Secretary  of 
State  would  come  first,  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury,  second. 

The  Cabinet 

The  President's  Cabinet,  the 
members  of  which  are  his  inti- 
mate advisers  and  helpers — his 
official  family  as  it  is  often 
called — is  not  mentioned  in  the 
Constitution,  although  it  is  one 
of  the  most  important  parts  of 
the  Government,  and  is  rapidly 
increasing  in  power.  The  work 
of  the  members  is  so  striking 
and  so  much  in  the  limelight, 
that  they  become  almost  as  well 
known  as  the  President  himself. 
For  example,  Hughes,  Hoover, 
Mellon,  Weeks,  Davis  and  other 
members  of  President  Harding's 
Cabinet,  are  almost  as  well 
known  as  President  Harding. 

In  the  first  place,  the  members 
of  the  Cabinet  are  the  Presi- 
dent's confidential  advisers,  and 
in  nearly  all  cases  are  picked 
from  the  same  political  party  as 
the  President's.  In  choosing 
them  he  takes  great  care  to  see 
that  all  sections  of  the  country 
are  represented,  for  in  this  way 
the  President  not  only  satisfies 
sectional  pride  and  secures  po- 
litical strength  and  support,  but 
makes  it  possible  for  himself  to 
keep   in  close   touch  with  men 


The  Department  of  State  is  the  first  Executive 
Department  in  the.  order  in  which  the  ten  iwere 
formed.  Its  chief  work  is  to  look  after  foreign  affairs. 
In  July,  1922,  a  new  treaty  between  this  country 
and  Canada  was  considered.  A  DELEGATION 
FROM  CANADA,  headed  by  its  Premier,  Mackenzie 
King,  held  conferences  with  the  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment   of   State,    Secretary    Chas.    E.    Hughes.      This 


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Department  also  directs  United  States  diplomats,  and 
deals  with  foreign  diplomats.  It  issues  passports. 
This  is  A  REDUCED  FACSIMILE  OF  A  PASSPORT. 


156 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


Next  in  order  is  the  Department  of  tiie  Treasury. 
Wlien  the  Federal  Government  wishes  to  borrow 
money,  it  does  so  through  the  Treasury  Department. 
During  the  World  War  the  LIBERTY  AND  VIC- 
TORY LOANS  were  under  the  direction  of  this  De- 


partment. Its  main  duties  are  to  collect  and  dis- 
burse money  for  carrying  on  the  government,  care 
for  the  health  of  the  people,  GUARD  THE  PERSON 
OF    THE    PRESIDENT    and     his    family,    make   the 


U.S.  money,  GUARD  THE  COAST  against  smuggling, 
and   prevent  diseases  from   entering  the  country. 


who  thoroughly  know  public 
opinion  in  all  parts  of  the 
country. 

Personal  friendship,  too,  has 
at  times  a  great  part  to  play  in 
the  selection  of  a  cabinet  mem- 
ber. Above  all,  a  member  of  the 
Cabinet  ought  to  be  a  good  ad- 
ministrator, as  he  is  the  head  of 
a  large  department  employing 
thousands  of  people. 

Cabinet  Meetings 

Cabinet  meetings,  where  ad- 
ministration questions  are  taken 
up,  are  very  informal.  The 
President  is  never  bound  by  the 
opinions  of  his  Cabinet  although 
they  help  him  in  making  his  de- 
cisions. He  is  the  only  elected 
official  constitutionally  respon- 
sible for  the  executive  part  of  the 
Federal   Government's  business. 

There  are  ten  executive  de- 
partments, the  heads  of  which 
make  up  the  Cabinet.  With  the 
Vice  President  now  invited  by 
President  Harding,  the  Cabinet 
members  number  eleven. 

Department  of  State 

The  Department  of  State  looks 
after  foreign  affairs.  Its  work  is 
extremely  important,  especially 
in  time  of  war.  All  United 
States  diplomats  are  under  its 
direction.  All  foreign  diplomats 
carry  on  their  business  through 
it.  It  also  examines  and  issues 
passports. 

The  Department  of  State  also 
keeps  and  announces  all  laws  of 
the  United  States,  all  treaties, 
all  executive  orders  and  presi- 
dential proclamations. 

Department  of  the  Treasury 

The  Department  of  the  Treas- 
ury collects  national  taxes,  pays 
all  the  bills  of  the  Government 
and  has  charge  of  making  United 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


157 


States  money.  Many  other  mis- 
cellaneous duties  and  services 
are  under  its  supervision,  such 
as  the  public  health  service,  cus- 
toms, coast-guard,  and  the  plan- 
ning of  national  buildings. 

Departments  of  War  and  Navy 
The  Departments  of  War  and 
Navy  need  no  explanation,  al- 
though mention  should  be  made 
of  the  engineering  corps  of  the 
Army,  which  was  responsible  for 
the  building  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  one  of  the  great  accom- 
plishments of  all  history.  The 
War  Department  also  has  a  Bu- 
reau of  Insular  Affairs  which  has 
charge  of  The  Philippines  and 
Porto  Rico. 

Department  of  Justice 

The  Department  of  Justice  is 
the  legal  adviser,  the  legal  pro- 
tector of  and  the  legal  prosecutor 
for  the  United  States.  It  is  also 
the  caretaker  of  its  peniten- 
tiaries and  prisons. 

Post  Office  Department 

The  Post  Office  Department, 
in  addition  to  transporting,  col- 
lecting and  delivering  the  mail, 
has  charge  of  postal  savings 
banks  and  the  parcels  post. 

Department  of  Interior 

The  Department  of  the  In- 
terior has  many  miscellaneous 
duties,  such  as  the  issuing  of 
patents,  the  supervision  and  sell- 
ing of  public  lands,  care  of  the 
Indians,  paying  pensions,  re- 
claiming and  irrigating  arid 
land.  The  great  national  parks 
are  in  its  charge,  as  is  also  the 
fostering  of  education. 

Department  of  Agriculture 

The  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture gives  us  our  daily  weather 


Another  important  executive  department  is  the 
War  Department.  It  is  responsible  for  the  efficiency 
of  THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY.  The  Army  of  the 
United  States  consists  of  the  Regular  Army,  the  Na- 
tional  Guard,  while  in  service  of  the  United  States, 


and  the  Organized  Reserves.  One  of  the  mighty 
tasks  that  the  War  Department  performed  was  the 
BUILDING  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL.  This  canal 
is  considered  one  of  the  greatest  works  of  man. 
It  shortens  the  water  route  Ibetween   New  York  and 


San  Francisco  nearly  8,000  miles.  The  canal  is  fifty 
miles  in  length  from  ocean  to  ocean.  A  SHIP 
CAN  PASS  THROUGH  IT  in  about  10  hours.  2,892 
ships  passed  through  the  Panama  Canal  in  1921, 
carrying  11,599,214  tons  of  cargo.  The  tolls  collected 
by  the  Government  for  this  year  were  $11,276,889.61. 


158 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


'WiS-K- 

(  • 

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1 

rF.  9^ ^',4^ 

^ 

Next  is  the  Department  of  Justice.  This  depart- 
ment is  the  legal  adviser,  the  legal  protector  of  and 
the  legal  prosecutor  for  the  United  States.  Agents 
of  the  Department  of  Justice,  assisted  by  the  local 
police,  were  engaged  during  the  World  War  in  seizing 
seditious  literature.    The  Post  Office  is  the  fifth  great 


executive  department.  Its  chief  business  is  to 
DELIVER  THE  MAILS.  It  also  has  charge  of  Postal 
Savings  Banks  and  Parcel   Post.     With  the  adoption 


of  the  Parcel  Post  and  the  ever  widening  extension 
of  RURAL  FREE  DELIVERY,  the  work  of  the  Post 
Office  Department  has  become  of  increased  Importance 
to  ail  the  people. 


reports,  helps  the  farmer  to  pro- 
duce good  crops;  investigates 
the  values  of  food  and  enforces 
the  Food  and  Drug  Act  of  1906. 
The  great  forest  reservations  are 
in  its  charge. 

Department  of  Commerce 

The  Department  of  Commerce 
assists  in  the  development  of  for- 
eign and  domestic  commerce, 
takes  the  census,  operates  fish 
hatcheries,  supervises  light- 
houses,  inspects  steamboats  and 
makes  coast  surveys. 

Department  of  Labor 

Last,  but  not  least,  is  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Labor.  In  it  are 
to  be  found  many  Bureaus  and 
Divisions  vital  to  all  of  us. 
Naturalization  and  Immigration 
are  two  great  problems  under  its 
jurisdiction.  Statistics  about  the 
condition  of  labor  in  the  United 
States  are  issued  by  it  and  an 
Employment  Service  is  con- 
ducted by  this  department.  Two 
very  valuable  Bureaus  in  the  De- 
partment are  the  Children's  and 
Women's  Bureau.  The  first 
gives  its  attention  to  questions 
of  child  welfare,  while  the  latter 
looks  after  the  interests  of  wage- 
earning  women. 

Boards  and  Commissions 

In  addition  to  these  Cabinet 
Departments,  there  are  a  number 
of  important  independent  Boards 
and  Commissions.  They  are  con- 
stantly growing  in  number,  espe- 
cially as  the  Government  extends 
its  aid  to  and  increases  its  super- 
vision over  the  business  of  the 
country.  The  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission,  with  its  con- 
trol of  railroads,  the  Federal 
Trade  Commission,  which  is  the 
great  business  supervisor  of  the 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


159 


nation,  the  Federal  Reserve 
Board,  under  which  our  banking 
system  is  organized  and  oper- 
ated, the  United  States  Ship- 
ping Board,  with  its  task  of 
developing  American  merchant 
shipping,  and  the  United  States 
Tariff  Commission,  are  some  of 
the  most  important  of  these  in- 
dependent agencies. 

Independent  Establishments 

The  Government  of  the  United 
States  is  the  greatest  of  all  mod- 
ern publishers.  It  employs 
hundreds  of  scientists,  who  are 
engaged  the  year  round  in  mak- 
ing researches  and  investigations 
in  all  branches  of  agriculture  and 
household  economy,  in  geology, 
in  mining,  in  electricity,  in  chem- 
istry, in  astronomy,  in  engineer- 
ing, in  aviation,  in  preventive 
medicine,  in  forestry,  in  irriga- 
tion, in  transportation  problems, 
in  trade  and  manufactures. 

The  results  of  all  these  activi- 
ties are  constantly  reduced  to 
print  and  poured  out  in  an  in- 
cessant flood  from  the  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office  at  Wash- 
ington, the  largest  printing  plant 
in  the  world  and  the  most  com- 
prehensive and  effective  organ- 
ization ever  known. 

These  documents  have  the 
freedom  of  the  mails  and  are 
sent  without  postage  at  the  cost 
of  printing  only. 

The  United  States  Civil  Ser- 
vice Commission  is  the  largest 
employment  director  in  the 
world.  It  annually  selects  thou- 
sands of  men  and  women  to 
do  the  work  in  the  departments 
and  bureaus  of  the  Government. 

The  Library  of  Congress  houses 
thousands  of  priceless  books  and 
is  the  official  custodian  of  Gov- 


The  Navy  Department  comes  sixth.  Above  is  a 
picture  of  the  famous  old  warship,  CONSTITUTION, 
nicknamed  "OLD  IRONSIDES,"  that  brought  such 
glory   to    the    American    Navy    in    the    War   of    1812. 


Compare  this  veteran   of  by-gone   days   with   a   late 
addition  to  the  United  States  Navy,  THE  TENNES- 


SEE.     This    triumph    of    modern    fighting    craft    is 
OPERATED  BY   ELECTRICITY. 


160 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


■ 

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M^^p^fi.S*  yM  ■-^'s^^  -vv  tH 

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^^^Hf  " 

The  Department  of  the  Interior  has  many  duties 
to  perform,  chief  of  which  is  to  RECLAIIVi  AND 
IRRIGATE  ARID  LANDS.  Millions  of  acres  of 
desert   land    now   produce   rich   crops   in   abundance. 


The  nineteen  great  national  parks  of  this  country 
are  also  under  the  care  of  this  Department.  This  pic- 
ture shows  Theodore  Roosevelt  visiting  the  Yosemite 
National  Park.    This  park  contains  1,125  square  miles. 


ernment  publications.  The 
Smithsonian  Institution  is  an- 
other educational  part  of  the 
United  States  Government.  It 
has  conducted  many  wonderful 
investigations  into  the  history 
and  customs  of  American  In- 
dians and  has  collected  thous- 
ands of  specimens  and  fossils 
illustrating  past  and  present  ani- 
mal life  in  this  country. 

The  United  States  Congress 

The  law  making  body  of  the 
National  Government  is  called 
the  Congress,  and  through  it  the 
people  of  the  United  States  put 
into  legal  effect  all  policies  un- 
der which  they  are  to  be  gov- 
erned. The  Congress  is  com- 
posed of  two  bodies,  the  House 
of  Representatives  and  the 
Senate. 

Several  reasons  influenced  the 
makers  of  the  Constitution  in 
adopting  a  two-house  plan  for  the 
national  legislature.  The  fathers 
of  the  Constitution  did  not  think 
it  altogether  wise  to  give  such 
great  power  to  one  single  body, 
which,  if  not  checked  by  a  sec- 
ond house,  might  hastily  pass 
ill-considered  laws.  The  value 
of  a  second  or  upper  house 
was  expressed  by  Washington, 
when  he  said  that  the  Senate 
would  be  a  saucer  in  which  the 
tea  of  the  House  would  be 
cooled.  A  Congress,  composed 
of  two  Houses,  was  also  a  com- 
promise between  the  large  and 
more  thickly  peopled  states  and 
the  smaller  ones.  The  House  of 
Representatives  was  organized 
to  represent  the  people,  the  Sen- 
ate to  give  equality  to  the  indi- 
vidual  states. 

In  practice,  the  plan  has 
worked  very  well.  It  has 
brought  to  bear  on  all  national 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


161 


legislation  two  bodies  composed 
of  representatives  elected  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  and  therefore  look- 
ing at  questions  from  different 
angles.  Through  the  House  of 
Representatives  and  the  Senate 
working  jointly,  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  has  been 
stabilized,  hasty  legislation  has 
been  checked,  and  the  laws  that 
have  been  passed  have  been  the 
result  of  thorough  consideration. 

The  House  of  Representatives 

This  is  often  called  the  7ower 
or  popular  House.  Representa- 
tives are  elected  from  435  con- 
gressional districts,  distributed 
among  the  states  according  to 
their  population.  A  new  distri- 
bution of  congressional  districts 
takes  place  every  ten  years  ac- 
cording to  the  new  census.  The 
term  of  a  member  of  the  House 
is  only  two  years. 

All  representatives  go  out  of 
office  and  come  into  office  to- 
gether, so  that  the  House 
changes  its  makeup  every  two 
years.  For  this  reason,  those 
members  who  have  been  re- 
elected many  times  —  Joseph 
Cannon  and  the  late  Champ 
Clark  are  two  good  examples — 
often  have  a  great  personal  con- 
trol over  the  House  on  account 
of  their  leadership  in  committees 
and  their  intimate  knowledge  of 
procedure  and  rules. 

The  Speaker 

The  organization  of  the  House 
is  very  complex,  but  there  are 
two  factors  in  the  organization 
which  everyone  should  know 
about ;  first,  the  Speaker,  second, 
the  Committees.  The  Speaker 
of  the  House,  elected  by  its  mem- 


The  Department  of  Agriculture  looks  after  the 
welfare  of 'the  farmers.  It  takes  care  of  our  national 
forests.  It  does  everything  possible  to  prevent 
FOREST   FIRES  that  each  year  destroy  timber  val- 


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ued  at  about  $17,000,000.  It  inspects  the  products  of 
the  GREAT  SLAUGHTER  HOUSES  of  the  country; 
enforces  the   Food   and    Drug   Act,  and   for  this   pur- 


pose, MAINTAINS  LABORATORIES  IN  WASHING- 
TON and  other  places  where  experts  analyze  food- 
stuffs sold  in  stores  and  shops. 


162 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


The  Department  of  Commerce  has  very  important 
work  to  do.  IT  TAKES  THE  CENSUS  every  ten  years. 
The  last  one  was  taken  in  1920.  By  this  census  the 
population    of     the    continental     United    States    was 


found  to  be  105,710,620.  This  Department  INSPECTS 
STEAMBOATS  to  make  sure  that  they  are  safe  and 
that  their  owners  comply  with  all  the  requirements 
of  the  law.     It  builds  and  operates  light-houses,  and 


charts  waterways  in  order  to  lessen  as  much  as  pos- 
sible marine  disasters.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
duty  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  is  to  assist  in 
the  development  of  FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC 
COMMERCE. 


bers,  is  in  a  position  of  real  in- 
fluence. Up  to  recent  times, 
when  his  power  to  name  all 
members  of  Committees  was 
taken  from  him,  his  influence  in 
American  government  was  con- 
sidered next  to  that  of  the  Presi- 
dent himself.  At  one  time  his 
power  over  legislation  was  so 
great  that  he  was  called  the  Czar 
of  the  House,  but  in  1910  he  was 
shorn  of  much  of  his  control  and 
power. 

This  power  is  now  largely  in 
the  hands  of  committees  and  the 
Hoot  leader  of  the  majority 
party.  The  minority  party  also 
has  its  floor  leader  who  is  the 
captain  that  directs  the  attack 
on  the  policies  of  the  majority 
leader  and  his  party. 

The  Speaker  still  has  numerous 
rights  and  privileges,  including 
the  one  to  recognize  the  mem- 
bers of  the  House  when  they 
wish  to  speak  on  the  floor.  He 
also  makes  the  House  appoint- 
ments to  committees  which  meet 
in  conference  with  the   Senate. 

From  twenty  to  twenty-hve 
thousand  bills  are  presented  at 
each  session  of  Congress.  A 
little  arithmetic  will  show  any- 
one that  the  House  would  have 
to  keep  in  continuous  session 
every  day  in  the  year,  morning 
and  night,  if  it  gave  only  a  few 
minutes  consideration  as  a  body 
to  each  one  of  these  bills.  The 
great  majority  of  them,  however, 
never  get  beyond  their  first 
reading. 

House  Committee  System 

There  are  over  sixty  perma- 
nent standing  committees  in  the 
House  to  handle  this  enormous 
number  of  bills.  Among  the 
more  prominent  ones  mentioned 
in  the  newspapers  are  the  Com- 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


163 


mittees  on  Ways  and  Means, 
Appropriations,  Judiciary,  Bank- 
ing and  Currency,  Rivers  and 
Harbors,  Agriculture  and  Mili- 
tary Affairs.  Many  of  the  com- 
mittees have  sub-committees  to 
consider  special  subjects. 

These  committees  always  have 
their  majority  and  minority 
members.  When  the  Republi- 
cans are  in  the  majority  in  the 
House  they  control  the  commit- 
tees and  the  Democrats  have  only 
a  minority  representation.  If  the 
Democrats  are  in  control,  it  is 
just  the  opposite.  Membership, 
on  a  committee  depends  on  the 
length  of  time  that  a  member 
has  been  in  the  House.  New 
members  of  the  House  are  put  at 
the  foot  of  the  list  and  must 
make  their  way  upwards  as  com- 
mittee members. 

The  United  States  Senate 

The  Senate  is  a  continuous 
body,  since  only  one-third  of  its 
membership  changes  every  two 
years.  The  Senate  does  not 
elect  its  own  presiding  officer 
since  the  Constitution  gives  it 
one  in  the  Vice  President,  who, 
however,  can  vote  only  in  case 
of  a  tie.  The  Senate  also  has  its 
committee  organizations. 

Senators  are  more  likely  to  be 
re-elected  than  the  Members  of 
the  House,  therefore  the  Senate 
does  not  change  its  makeup  as 
often  or  as  much  as  the  House 
of  Representatives.  This  longer 
term  of  office  allows  a  Senator  to 
resist  better  the  pressure  of  im- 
mediate considerations.  It  gives 
him  prestige  and  importance. 
Individuals  stand  out  more 
prominently  in  the  Senate  since 
it  is  a  very  much  smaller  body 
of  men  than  the  House.    Debates 


The  last  Executive  Department  is  the  Department 
of  Labor.  Its  work  is  to  gather  labor  statistics  and 
to  assist  in  IRONING  OUT  DISPUTES  BETWEEN 
EMPLOYERS    AND    EMPLOYEES.      Immigration    is 


another  activity.  THIS  DEPARTMENT  ALSO 
HELPS  ALIENS  TO  BECOME  NATURALIZED 
CITIZENS.     Two  very  valuable   Bureaus  in  the   De- 


partment of  Labor  are  the  Children's  Bureau  and 
Women's  Bureau.  The  first  is  concerned  about 
CHILD  WELFARE,  the  second  looks  after  the  in- 
terests of  wage-earning  women. 


164 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


In  addition  to  the  ten  Executive  Departments 
named,  there  are  the  independent  establishments  of 
the  Government,  chief  of  (which  is  the  CIVIL 
SERVICE  COMMISSION.  This  Commission  examines 
all  those  who  seek  employment  in  any  of  the 
competitive  classified  civil  service  positions.  There 
are  about  76,000  such  positions  in  Washington  and 
over  500,000  outside.    Another  important  independent 


office  is  the  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
Every  one  should  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity 
which  the  Government  gives  to  secure  at  a  very  low 
price  MATTER  WRITTEN  BY  EXPERTS  ON  AL- 
MOST ANY  SUBJECT.  There  is  just  one  condition 
to  the  liberal  offer  of  the  Government  and  that  is 
that  payment  be  made  in  advance. 


are  more  important.  Many  great 
American  orations — Daniel  Web- 
ster's and  John  C.  Calhoun's  on 
the  nature  and  the  powers  of  the 
Federal  Government — were  made 
on  the  floor  of  the  Senate. 

In  the  House,  because  of  its 
large  membership,  in  order  to  get 
business  done  the  right  to  talk 
must  be  strictly  limited.  In  the 
Senate,  it  is  unlimited,  and  is 
sometimes  used  to  talk  bills  to 
death.  Such  an  attempt  to  kill 
a  bill  is  called  a  "  filibuster." 

Passing  Bills 

All  bills  for  raising  revenue, 
according  to  the  Constitution, 
must  be  first  introduced  in  the 
House  of  Representatives. 
Every  other  kind  of  bill  can  start 
in  either  House. 

Let  us  take  a  bill  which  has 
been  introduced  in  the  House  of 
Representatives,  and  trace  its 
course  until  it  becomes  a  law  of 
the  United  States. 

A  copy  of  the  Bill,  which  may 
be  introduced  by  an  individual 
member  or  by  a  chairman  in 
behalf  of  a  Committee  itself, 
is  endorsed  with  the  mem- 
ber's name  and  is  sent  to  the 
Clerk's  table,  where  it  is  num- 
bered and  recorded.  The  Bill  is 
then  referred  to  the  proper  com- 
mittee for  consideration.  A  bill 
on  immigration,  for  example, 
goes  to  the  Committee  on  Immi- 
gration and  Naturalization.  This 
constitutes  the  first  reading.  If, 
on  reading  it,  the  Committee 
does  not  feel  that  it  is  a  good 
bill,  it  simply  drops  it  and  does 
nothing — makes  no  report  on  it. 
Thousands  of  bills  are  killed  in 
this  way. 

If  the  Committee  thinks  the 
bill  has  merit,  it  may  do  one  of 
several  things.    It  may  report  the 


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THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


165 


bill  back  to  the  House  as  it  is 
written;  it  may  amend  the  bill, 
and  report  it  as  amended ;  or  it 
may  write  a  bill  of  its  own  along 
similar  lines  and  present  it  to 
the  House  with  a  favorable  rec- 
ommendation. In  the  latter  case, 
the  bill  is  very  likely  to  pass.  If 
it  is  a  very  important  bill  it  goes 
through  a  long  series  of  commit- 
tee hearings,  at  which  any  per- 
son in  favor  of  it  or  against  it 
may  appear. 

The  bill  is  then  taken  up  in  a 
private  session  of  a  committee,  at 
which  its  final  form  is  decided 
upon.  Each  bill  must  have  three 
readings.  The  first  is  by  title 
only,  as  indicated.  At  the  second 
reading  the  whole  bill  is  given. 
Amendments  may  then  be 
offered  by  the  Committee  or 
others  and  voted  upon. 

The  question  then  comes  up 
"  Shall  the  bill  as  amended  be 
engrossed  and  read  a  third 
time? "  Here,  besides  the  con- 
tests on  the  amendments,  the 
real  struggle  and  debate  takes 
place.  Those  in  favor  of  it  and 
those  against  it  debate.  The 
question  is  then  put  to  a  vote. 
If  it  passes,  the  bill  must  come 
up  a  third  time,  usually  by  title 
only.  With  few  exceptions,  a 
bill  reaching  the  third  reading  is 
passed  with  little  difficulty. 

Goes  to  Senate 

The  bill  is  then  sent  to  the 
Senate.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
describe  In  detail  the  procedure 
of  the  Senate,  which  corresponds 
closely  to  that  of  the  House. 
Bills  go  through  the  same  three 
readings.  Usually,  however,  the 
Senate  has  many  changes  or 
amendments  to  make. 

As  no  bill  may  become  a  law 


The  legislative  branch  of  the  government  is  The 
Congress.  The  most  important  member  of  the  House 
is  the  Speaker.  Two  recent  Speakers  of  the  House 
were  JOSEPH  G.  CANNON  and  the  late  CHAMP 
CLARK.     The    present   Speaker   is    FREDERICK    H. 


GILLETT.     There  are  over  60  standing  committees 
in  the  House  to  handle  the  enormous  number  of  bills 


which    are   presented   at   each    Session   of  Congress. 
The  Senate  has  a  corresponding   number. 


166 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


The  course  that  a  House  bill  must  take  before  it 
becomes  a  law  is  about  as  follows: 

(1)  A  bill  is  introduced  in  the  House  and  (2)  is 
sent  to  the  Clerk's  table  where  recorded,  and  (3)  is 
referred  to  the  proper  Committee. 


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In  Committee  the  bill  is  either  (4)  killed,  or  (5)  en- 
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Or  (7)  rewritten.    Then  it  (8)  is  taken  up  in  Com' 
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A  bill  (10)  has  three  readings;  and  (11)  is  debated 
and  amended.     If  passed  it  (12)  goes  to  the  Senate. 


The  BILL  now 
takes  about 
the  same  steps 
in  the  Senate 
as  it  took  in 
the  House.  13 


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See  (13).  Then  (14)  representatives  from  both 
Houses  decide  upon  its  final  wording;  then  it  is  put 
to  a  final  vote.    If  passed  it  (15)  goes  to  the  President. 


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If  (16)  the  President  vetoes  the  bill,  it  goes  back 
to  Congress.  If  passed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  it  is  law 
unless  (17)  the  Supreme  Court  decides  it  unconstitu- 
tional.    If  constitutional,  it   (18)    remains  a   law. 


unless  it  is  passed  in  exactly  the 
same  form  by  both  chambers, 
something  must  be  done  to  bring 
about  an  agreement.  A  confer- 
ence committee  is  appointed, 
made  up  from  members  of  the 
Senate  and  the  House.  This 
committee  meets,  adjusts  the 
differences,  and  formulates  a 
final  bill  which  is  then  referred 
back  to  the  Senate  and  to  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

If  passed  by  both  Houses,  it 
is  sent  to  the  President,  who 
has  the  right  to  accept  it  or  veto 
it.  If  he  accepts  it,  the  bill  be- 
comes a  law  of  the  United  States. 
If  he  vetoes  it,  it  fails  unless  it 
is  passed  again  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  house ;  in  that  event 
it  becomes  a  law  without  the 
President's  approval. 

Goes  to  President 

A  bill  passed  by  Congress  and 
signed  by  the  President  must  in 
some  cases  jump  another  hurdle 
before  being  finally  accepted  as 
a  United  States  law.  This  final 
hurdle  is  the  Federal  Courts, 
which  interpret  the  Constitution 
and  statute  law. 

Federal  Courts 

The  Federal  Courts  have  been 
organized  so  as  to  make  them  as 
impartial  as  is  humanly  possible, 
as  much  in  a  democracy  depends 
upon  the  people's  confidence  in 
the  integrity  of  this  branch  of 
government. 

The  Judges  of  these  courts 
are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, which  appointments  must 
be  confirmed  by  the  Senate. 
They  are  appointed  for  life  on 
good  behavior,  so  as  not  to  be 
subjected  to  the  whim  or  the  par- 
tisanship of  any  one  moment.    It 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


167 


is  their  duty  to  interpret  the  law, 
and  the  Constitution  as  it  is, 
without  favor  to  any  individual, 
group  or  class.  Sometimes  its 
decisions  prove  unpopular  with 
certain  groups  and  bring  partisan 
attacks  on  the  courts. 

Everyone  must  remember  that 
some  agency,  in  the  kind  of  gov- 
ernment that  we  have,  must 
finally  decide  whether  this  law 
or  that  law  violates  the  Consti- 
tution. Any  body  of  men  who 
of  necessity  must  make  such  im- 
portant decisions  is  at  times  un- 
popular. However  it  is  not  the 
duty  of  the  court  to  meet  popu- 
lar opinion.  It  is  to  interpret 
the  Constitution. 

It  would  seem,  in  looking  over 
the  history  of  the  United  States 
that  the  courts  have,  on  the 
whole,  done  their  duty  wisely 
and  impartially  and  have  inter- 
preted the  words  of  the  Na- 
tional Constitution  and  the  laws 
passed  by  Congress  in  a  manner 
which  has  allowed  the  United 
States  to  make  sound  and  con- 
sistent progress  along  political, 
economic  and  social  lines. 

The  Supreme  Court 

The  Courts  of  the  United 
States  consist  of  three  groups. 
The  first  and  most  important, 
and  at  the  head  of  the  American 
judicial  system,  is  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court.  This 
Court  is  made  necessary  by  the 
Constitution  but  the  details  of 
its  organization  have  been  left 
to  Congress.  It  now  consists  of 
a  Chief  Justice  and  eight  Asso- 
ciate Justices.  The  Chief  Jus- 
tice receives  $15,000  a  year;  the 
Associate   Justices,  $14,500. 

The  jurisdiction  of  this  court 
is  discussed  in  Section  2  of  Ar- 
ticle 3  of  the  Constitution.     It 


The  highest  court  in  the  American  Judicial  Systenn 
is  the  UNITED  STATES  SUPREME  COURT.  Ow- 
ing to  the  death  of  Chief  Justice   Edward   D.  White 


in  1920,  William  Howard  Taft  was  appointed  by 
President  Harding,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate, 
to  become  the  new  Chief  Justice.  Before  talcing  this 
position,  Ex-President  Taft,  as  all  officials  must  do, 
TOOK    THE    OATH    OF    OFFICE.       In    May,    1922, 


members  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  re-dedi- 
cated, at  Philadelphia,  THE  BUILDING  IN  WHICH 
THE  FIRST  SUPREME  COURT  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  HELD  ITS  SESSION,  133  years  ago. 


168 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


The  Federal  and  State  judicial  systems  are  shown 
by  this  chart.  The  reader  will  note  how  certain  cases, 
starting  in  the  lowest  courts,  state  or  national,  may 
be  carried  through  the  higher  courts  and  eventually 
to  the   United  States  Supreme  Court. 

The  Federal  Courts  have  been  organized  so  as  to 
make  them  as  impartial  as  is  humanly  possible,  as 
much  in  a  democracy  depends  upon  the  people's 
confidence  in  the  integrity  of  this  branch  of  Govern- 
ment. All  the  Judges  of  the  Federal  Courts  are 
appointed  by  the  President,  which  appointments  must 
be  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  Judges  are  appointed 
for  life  on  good  behavior,  so  as  not  to  be  subjected 
to  the  whim  or  the  partisanship  of  any  one  moment. 


has  original  jurisdiction  over 
certain  kinds  of  cases,  that 
is,  it  hears  these  cases  for  the 
first  time.  Most  of  its  work, 
however,  consists  of  deciding 
cases  which  come  to  it  on  appeal 
from  other  federal  courts  or  state 
courts.  On  the  whole,  however, 
it  only  passes  on  a  very  small 
percentage  of  all  laws  that  are 
passed  and  it  never  gives  a  con- 
stitutional decision  except  on  an 
actual  case  which  is  brought  be- 
fore it.  All  decisions  are  made 
by  majority  vote. 

Many  Justices  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  especially  the  Chief 
Justice,  who  actually  has  no 
more  power  in  making  decisions 
than  the  other  judges,  have  been 
outstanding  figures  in  American 
government. 

John  Marshall  was  probably 
the  most  noted  of  the  Chief 
Justices.  His  constitutional  de- 
cisions in  our  early  history  were 
so  important  and  had  so  great 
an  effect  in  determining  the 
working  form  and  powers  of  our 
government  and  had  so  great  an 
influence  on  American  life  that 
he  has  been  called  the  "  Ex- 
pounder of  the  Constitution." 

Circuit  Court  of  Appeals 

The  next  court  is  the  Circuit 
Court  of  Appeals.  Nine  great 
circuit  court  judicial  districts 
have  been  organized  in  the 
United  States,  each  district  hav- 
ing four,  three,  or  two  justices, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

These  circuit  courts  were  or- 
ganized to  relieve  the  Supreme 
Court  of  a  great  deal  of  its  work, 
especially  in  hearing  cases  of  ap- 
peal from  the  lower  courts.  In 
some  instances  a  circuit  court 
decision  is  final.  The  Circuit 
Courts  also  enforce  ^nd  review 


THE      NATIONAL      GOVERNMENT 


16^ 


certain  orders  and  decisions  of  such 
bodies  as  the  Inter-State  Commerce 
Commission,  the  Federal  Trade  Com- 
mission and  the  Federal  Reserve  Board. 

District  Courts 

The  next  lower  order  of  federal  courts 
is  the  District  Court.  There  are  eighty- 
one  such  districts  in  the  United  States, 
in  each  one  of  which  is  a  District  Judge, 
although  some  districts  have  more  than 
one.  There  are  over  one  hundred 
Federal  District  Judges  in  the  United 
States.  These  courts  hear  cases  involv- 
ing crimes  against  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, internal  revenue  cases,  criijies 
against  the  postal  laws,  and  infringe- 
ments of  copyrights  or  patents. 

Each  Federal  District  Court  has  a 
United  States  District  Attorney  for  pur- 
poses of  prosecution,  and  a  marshal  to 
carry  out  the  decisions  of  the  Court. 
Decisions  of  the  District  Court  may 
be  appealed  to  the  Circuit  Court,  and 
in  some  cases  directly  to  the  Supreme 
Court. 

Special  Courts 

In  addition  to  these  three  orders  of 
courts,  there  are  some  special  courts. 
The  Court  of  Claims  has  been  organized* 
to  hear  all  cases  brought  against  the 
United  States  on  account  of  salaries, 
payment  for  supplies,  or  other  damages. 
It  is  composed  of  one  Chief  Justice  and 
four  Associate  Justices. 

The  Court  of  Customs  Appeal  is  like- 
wise organized  to  hear  disputes  aris- 
ing over  the  tariff  laws.  An  importer 
may  bring  in  a  large  consignment  of 
goods  on  which  he  must  pay  a  duty ;  he 
may  question  the  duty  which  has  been 
imposed  and  bring  his  claim  up  in  the 
Court  of  Customs  Appeal.  This  Court 
has  a  Chief  Justice  and  four  Associate 
Justices. 

In  addition  to  these  two  special  courts, 


courts  have  been  organized  for  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  Hawaii,  Alaska,  Porto 
Rico  and  The  Philippines,  territories  or 
dependencies  of  the  United  States  that 
are  organized  in  a  different  manner  than 
are  the  forty-eight  States  of  the  Union. 

A  United  Country 

Through  these  three  branches  of  Gov- 
ernment— Executive,  Legislative  and  the 
Judicial, — the  National  Government  car- 
ries on  the  great  tasks  given  to  it  by 
the  Constitution.  These  tasks  are  con- 
stantly increasing  in  number  and  va- 
riety. This  is  necessarily  so,  and  is 
simply  a  result  of  the  natural  growth  of 
the  nation. 

America  began  with  a  few  isolated 
outposts  along  the  Atlantic  Ocean — 
among  others,  .Jamestown,  Virginia; 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  and  New  Amster- 
dam, New  York.  As  the  colonies 
grew  together  their  dependence  upon 
each  other  increased.  At  last  they 
united  in  a  common  government,  one 
that  we  use  to-day.  Under  it  the 
different  parts  of  the  nation  have  con- 
tinued to  grow  closer  together,  until  to- 
day north,  south,  east  and  west  need 
each  other  more  than  ever  before.  New 
York,  Chicago,  San  Francisco,  and  New 
Orleans  are  •  now  more  nearly  alike, 
closer  together  than  the  Boston  and  New 
York  of  Revolutionary  days.  We  have 
grown  into  one  people,  meeting  to- 
gether, talking  together,  doing  business 
together.  The  United  States  is  more 
than  a  government,  it  is  a  great  society, 
knit  together  by  railroads,  telephones, 
newspapers,  books,  schools,  commerce 
and  industry.  The  National  Govern- 
ment in  the  ways  just  described  looks 
after  the  common  needs  of  this  great 
society,  while  the  state  governments, 
described  in  the  following  chapter,  look 
after  the  more  local  tasks. 


"  All  men  are  entitled  to  a  hearing  in  the  councils  which  decide  upon  the 
destiny  of  themselves  and  their  children." — Andrew  Johnson. 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


A  UNITED  NATION  OF  FORTY-EIGHT  STATES 
The  state  provides  for  the  governmental  needs  of  farm  and  city 


CHAPTER  XI 


State  Government 

State  Government  is  that  Division  of  the  American  Federal  System  that 
Touches  the  Daily  Life  of  the  People 


FROM  the  cradle  to  the  grave  every 
American  is  influenced  in  some  way 
by  state  government.  When  a  child 
is  born,  state  law  immediately  requires 
a  birth  certihcate.  The  doctor  who 
looks  after  him  when  he  contracts  a 
child's  disease  is  licensed  by  the  state. 
A  state  compulsory  education  law  sends 
him  to  school  at  the  age  of  six.  Be- 
fore he  is  allowed 
to  attend  classes,  the 
state  requires  that 
he  be  vaccinated. 
His  school  is  organ- 
ized under  state  au- 
thority and  super- 
vision. His  teachers 
are  licensed.  If  the 
boy  leaves  school  at 
an  early  age,  he  is 
required  to  have 
working  papers.  If 
he  becomes  a  chauf- 
feur, a  state  license 
to  drive  must  be  se- 
cured. If  he  enters 
a  factory,  his  hours 
of  work  and  condi- 
tions of  labor  may 
b  e  regulated  b  y 
state  law.  If  in- 
jured, a  state  work- 
men's compensation  act  protects  him. 
Instead  of  leaving  school,  however,  he 
may  continue  his  education  through 
the  high  school,  and  after  that  through 
a  state  university,  paid  for  by  state 
taxes.  He  may  win  a  state  scholarship 
giving  him  free  tuition.  He  may  be 
graduated  as  a  dentist,  a  doctor,  or  a 
lawyer ;  but  before  he  can  begin  to  prac- 
tice, he  must  pass  a  state  examination 
and  secure  a  license.  If  he  wishes  to 
marry,  a  marriage  license  must  first  be 


Close  to  the  People 

THE  title  of  "The 
United  States  of 
America"  is  an  exact  de- 
scription of  our  govern- 
ment; a  federal  union  of 
states  . . .  State  govern- 
ment must  be  kept  clos& 
to  the  people.  It  must 
work  for  their  social 
and  economic  interests, 
since  it  is  that  division 
of  the  American  federal 
system  which  is  charged 
with  looking  after  in- 
timate human  needs. 


secured.  His  wife  desires  an  automo- 
bile, which  he  purchases;  but  he  finds 
that  before  he  can  run  it  a  state  license 
is  needed,  and  a  state  tax  must  be 
paid.  His  marriage  may  turn  out  unfor- 
tunately. If  so,  he  and  his  wife  may  be 
divorced  according  to  state  law. 

If  the  young  man  becomes  a  farmer, 
state  agriculturat  experiment  stations 
are  ready  to  assist 
him.  If  he  becomes 
a  railroad  executive, 
he  is  subject  to  the 
orders  of  astate  pub- 
lic utility  or  public 
service  commission. 
He  may  run  a  milk 
company,  and  then 
state  health  laws 
must  be  observed. 
He  may  conspire 
with  other  men  in 
his  own  line  of 
business  to  raise 
prices  or  to  form  a 
monopoly.  Then  the 
state,  under  its  anti- 
trust laws,  may  fine 
him  or  send  him  to 
prison. 

When  he  is  event- 
ually overtaken  by 
old  age,  disease  or  accident,  and  is  pro- 
nounced dead  by  a  licensed  doctor,  the 
state  requires  a  permit  for  his  burial. 
Even  his  undertaker  must  have  a  license. 
After  death  the  state  still  retains  some 
form  of  control  over  the  property  he 
has  left  behind  him.  Under  state  law 
his  property  is  divided.  Finally,  a  part 
of  what  he  leaves  may  be  taken  by  the 
state  in  the  form  of  an  inheritance  tax. 
The  state,  as  these  various  illustra- 
tions have  indicated,  is  in  close  contact 


171 


172 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


From  the  cradle  to  the  grave,  every  American 
is  influenced     in    some    way    by    state    government. 

At  BIRTH  the  State  requires  a  BIRTH  CERTIFI- 
CATE. A  LICENSED  DOCTOR  writes  it  out.  At  six 
a  state  law  SENDS  THE  CHILD  TO  SCHOOL. 


His  TEACHER  is  licensed.  If  the  youth  works  dur- 
ing vacation,  WORKING  PAPERS  authorized  by  the 
state  must  be  filled  out.  After  Public  School  he  may 
go  to  a   STATE   UNIVERSITY. 


ai 

EUiffiJE? 

If  he  goes  to  work  in  a  factory  his  HOURS  OF 
LABOR  may  be  regulated  by  the  state.  If  he  runs  a 
taxi  he  must  secure  a  STATE  LICENSE.  If  he  is 
injured  while  at  work,  a  STATE  WORKMEN'S  COM- 
PENSATION  LAW  protects  him. 


^^^ 

^s* 

If  the  young  man  enters  a  profession — DENTIST, 
LAWYER,  or  CERTIFIED  PUBLIC  ACCOUNTANT 
— he  must  secure  a  license. 


##^^ 


If  he  MARRIES,  buys  an  AUTOMOBILE,  or  goes 
FISHING,  he  must  first  secure,  in  each  case  a 
STATE   LICENSE. 


His  FOOD  AND  DRINK  are  inspected  by  the  State. 
He  dies,  and  is  BURIED  by  State  permit.  His  heirs 
pay  an   INHERITANCE  TAX  on  what  he  leaves. 


with  the  social,  economic,  and 
educational  life  of  its  people,  but 
it  also  exerts  its  sway  in  another 
manner. 

The  National  Government  rests 
upon  the  states.  They  are  neces- 
sary to  its  successful  operation. 
State  law,  for  example,  deter- 
mines who  i22ay  vote  in  national 
elections.  States  are  divided 
into  the  districts  from  which 
congressmen  are  elected.  Can- 
didates for  national  office  are 
nominated  under  state  regula- 
tion. Even  amendments  to  the 
National  Constitution  are  made 
possible  through  the  vote  of 
state  legislatures. 

An  Exact  Description 

The  title  of  "The  United  States 
of  America"  is  an  exact  descrip- 
tion of  our  government:  a  fed- 
eral union  of  states.  How  impor- 
tant it  is,  then,  to  everyone  that 
state  government  be  properly  or- 
ganized, that  its  different  parts 
work  together  smoothly,  that  it 
be  run  honestly,  efficiently  and 
economically. 

If  this  important  part  of  our 
government  becomes  honey- 
combed with  graft  and  corrup- 
tion, if  our  state  officials  are  men 
of  small  calibre,  then  we  are  in- 
jured in  every  vital  step  that 
we  take  during  our  lives.  State 
government  must  be  kept  close 
to  the  people.  It  must  work  for 
their  social  and  economic  inter- 
ests, since  it  is  that  division  of 
the  American  federal  system 
which  is  charged  with  looking 
after  practical  human  needs. 

Although  in  details  state  gov- 
ernments vary  widely,  their  gen- 
eral organization  is  similar  in 
many  ways.  State  governments 
correspond  closely  to  Federal 
Government  in  organization. 


STATE      GOVERNMENT 


173 


The  State  Constitution 

The  foundation  of  every  state 
government  is  its  constitution. 
Before  the  Federal  Constitution 
was  adopted  in  1787,  each  of  the 
original  thirteen  states  had  al- 
ready written  and  adopted  its 
own  constitution.  Since  that 
time,  thirty-five  additional  states 
have  been  admitted  to  the  Union, 
each  with  its  own  constitution. 

Congress  determines  whether 
or  not  a  constitution,  which  a 
state  must  present  before  admit- 
tance to  the  Union,  is  satisfac- 
tory. It  may  ask  a  state  before 
admittance  to  make  certain 
changes  in  its  constitution,  or 
may  even  refuse  a  state  entrance 
into  the  Union  on  account  of  the 
character  of  this  instrument. 

State  Legislatures 

The  state  legislature  deter- 
mines the  policy  of  state  govern- 
ment. It  is  made  up  of  two  bod- 
ies, a  smaller  or  upper  house,  gen- 
erally called  the  senate,  and  a 
larger  or  lower  house,  which  in 
some  states  is  called  the  house 
of  representatives,  in  others,  the 
assembly,  and  in  a  few,  the  house 
of  delegates. 

For  purposes  of  electing  state 
senators,  a  state  is  divided  into 
senatorial  districts,  whereas  rep- 
resentatives to  the  lower  house 
are  elected  from  smaller  di- 
visions, generally  called  assem- 
bly districts.  A  state  legisla- 
ture usually  meets  once  in  two 
years,  but  in  a  few  states  once 
a  year. 

No  body  of  men  in  America 
wields  legal  powers  so  vital  to  all 
of  us  as  the  members  of  a  state 
legislature.  A  state  legislature 
possesses  every  power  not  for- 
bidden by  state  or  national  con- 


The  foundation  of  every  state  government  is 
its  constitution.  Since  1787,  when  the  Thirteen  Orig- 
inal States  became  the  United  States  of  America, 
35  states  have  been  admitted  to  the  Union.  Before 
admission,  these  states  were  called  territories.  This 
picture  shows  the  INAUGURATION  OF  THE 
NORTH-WEST  TERRITORY  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  1783. 


New  York   State   ADOPTED   ITS   CONSTITUTION 
in  1777.     The  City  of  Albany  was  chosen  its  capital. 


THE  LEGISLATURE  AT  ALBANY  determines  the 
policy  of  government  of  the  State  of  New  York. 


174 


WE      AND       OUR       GOVERNMENT 


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TTt       HTKlf       »*tt»        is.il 
Ml       lilt  t))        •  >  I  I  »        ,11 
IDI       ■Kll!;^        .Ill 


r- 


A  state  legislature  composed  of  two  bodies,  an 
upper  and  lower  house,  meets  in  the  State  Capitol 
building  and  there  conducts  the  business  of  the  state. 
Photographs  of  a  few  of  the  State  Capitols  are  here 
shown. 

State  Capitols  of  (1)  Kentucky  at  Frankfort,  and 
(2)    Pennsylvania  at   Harrisburg. 


State   Capitols   of    (1)    New   York   at   Albany,   and 
(2)    Colorado   at   Denver. 


State   Capitols  of    (1)    Wyoming   at  Cheyenne,   and 
(2)   Ohio  at  Columbus. 


Slate     Capitols    of     (1)     Vermont     at     Montpelier, 
and  (2)  Connecticut  at  Hartford. 


State     Capitols    of    (1)     Texas    at    Austin,    and 
(2)    Washington  at  Olympla. 


stitutions.  On  account  of  the 
wide  range  of  subjects  with 
which  it  deals,  a  vast  amount  of 
business  comes  before  every  state 
legislature.  In  consequence, 
these  bodies  pass  thousands  of 
bills  on  a  great  number  of  sub- 
jects every  year.  For  this  reason 
every  voter  on  election  day 
should  be  very  careful  to  con- 
sider the  men  and  women  who 
offer  themselves  as  candidates 
for  a  state  legislature. 

In  order  to  get  through  with 
their  work,  committees  closely 
patterned  after  those  in  the  Na- 
tional Congress  are  chosen.  Bills 
in  a  state  legislature,  as  in  Con- 
gress, are  first  considered  by  a 
committee  and  go  through  three 
readings. 

The  power  of  the  speaker  of 
the  lower  house  and  of  the  Hoor 
leaders  in  both  houses  of  a  state 
legislature  is  even  greater  than 
in  Congress. 

The  Governor 

The  chief  executive  of  a  state 
is  the  governor.  He  occupies  a 
position  very  much  like  that  of 
the  President  of  the  United 
States.  There  is  this  difference, 
however:  in  the  National  Gov- 
ernment the  President  is  the  sole 
officer  elected  and  held  respon- 
sible for  executive  work,  while 
in  the  states  the  governor  is  not 
the  only  executive  officer  elected. 
Usually  the  secretary  of  state, 
the  treasurer,  the  comptroller, 
the  attorney  general,  and  some- 
times other  officials  have  their 
own  duties  to  perform  and  are 
not  responsible  to  the  governor. 
In  most  states  they  are  elected 
by  the  people  and  are  responsible 
to  them.  The  governor,  unlike 
the  President,  has  no  cabinet.  The 
chief  executive  officials  are  not 


STATE      GOVERNMENT 


175 


his  organized  advisers,  though 
he  often  must  consult  them.  He 
stands  alone  and  is  in  a  weaker 
position  in  the  state  than  our 
President  is  in  the  nation. 

This  is  so  because  when  the 
first  state  governments  were  or- 
ganized the  people  who  wrote 
the  constitutions  had  firmly 
fixed  in  their  minds  the  abuse  of 
executive  power  which  had  been 
exercised  by  the  old  colonial 
governors.  Therefore,  in  order 
to  forestall  a  too  powerful  ex- 
ecutive, the  position  of  governor 
was  weakened.  In  many  in- 
stances he  was  simply  made  a 
figurehead  and  the  state  legisla- 
ture was  made  the  supreme  out- 
standing feature  in  the  state 
governmental  machinery. 

Nevertheless,  with  the  growth 
of  our  state  governments  and  the 
great  increase  in  their  activities, 
an  increased  need  for  executive 
leadership  has  arisen.  This, 
coupled  with  the  enormous  and 
alarming  growth  in  state  bud- 
gets, has  brought  the  governor 
to  the  front.  To-day  the  people 
of  the  states  are  looking  more 
and  more  to  their  executive  chief 
for  guidance  and  leadership. 

Governor's  Legislative  Power 

The  governor,  in  addition  to 
seeing  that  the  laws  are  carried 
out,  has  much  legislative  power. 
He  sends  messages  and  makes 
recommendations  to  the  legis- 
lature. He  may  use  the  veto  on 
bills  sent  to  him  for  approval. 
He  can  call  extra  sessions 
of  the  legislature  to  consider 
special  subjects  which  he  be- 
lieves* should  be  enacted  into 
laws.  For  example,  former  Gov- 
ernor Hughes,  of  New  York 
State,  some  years  ago  called  a 
special  session  of  the  legislature 


Next  to  the  President,  a  state  governor  is  the  most 
important  executive  in  American  public  life.  A  suc- 
cessful governor  is  very  often  considered  for  the 
position  of  President  or  Vice-President. 

(1)  William  McKinley  (2)  Grover  Cleveland  (3)  Woodrow 
Wilson  (4)  Theodore  Roosevelt  were  state  governors  before 
they  became  President.  (5)  James  M.  Cox,  Democratic  candi- 
date for  President,  1920.  was  Governor  of  Ohio.  (6)  Vice 
President  Calvin  Coolidge  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts. 
(7)  Chas  E.  Hughes,  the  Republican  Candidate  for  President 
in  1916,  was  Governor  of  New  York.  (8)  Former  Vice  Presi- 
dent Thomas  Marshall  W9s  Governor  of  Indiana. 


176 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


State  activities  may  be  grouped  under  a  few  main 
headings.  A  state's  most  important  work  is  educa- 
tion, and   CITIZENSHIP   TRAINING   is  a  feature   of 


this  work.  Another  feature  is  the  provision  that  the 
state  makes  through  its  agricultural  colleges  to  give 
information  on  farming.  This  picture  shows  a  class 
in  the  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  OF 
WISCONSIN,    studying    soils.      A    state    government 


grants  licenses.  For  example,  a  doctor  may  not 
PRACTICE  MEDICINE  unless  provided  with  a 
license   granted    by  the   state. 


to  pass  anti-gambling  and  race 
track  legislation.  Budget  re- 
forms in  a  number  of  states  are 
also  bringing  the  governor  more 
directly  into  the  problem  of  mak- 
ing appropriations. 

Governor's  Appointing  Power 

The  governor  makes  many  ap- 
pointments to  office  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  state  sen- 
ate and  these,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  President,  take  a  great 
deal  of  his  time.  He  can  re- 
move many  officials  from  of- 
fice on  charges  of  misconduct 
or  neglect  of  duties.  A  gov- 
ernor is  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  state  militia,  with 
the  right  to  use  it  in  case  of  riots 
or  uprisings.  This  power  was 
exercised  by  Vice  President 
Coolidge,  when  he  was  Governor 
of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  in 
policing  the  City  of  Boston  dur- 
ing a  policemen's  strike.  If  a 
governor  needs  federal  assist- 
ance, he  can  call  upon  the  Presi- 
dent for  troops.  He  likewise  has 
the  power  of  pardon  and  re- 
prieve. In  addition,  he  has  many 
social  duties  to  perform. 

Next  to  the  President,  a  gov- 
ernor is  the  most  important  ex- 
ecutive in  American  life.  A  gov- 
ernor with  strength  of  character, 
initiative,  and  the  ability  to  lead, 
means  much  to  the  happiness 
and  safety  of  the  citizens  of  a 
state.  Men  who  make  their  mark 
and  stand  out  as  governors  are 
very  often  considered  for  the 
position  of  President  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Lieutenant  Governor 

In  over  half  of  the  states  a 
lieutenant  governor  is  also 
elected.  He  generally  presides 
over  the  meetings   of  the   state 


STATE      GOVERNMENT 


177 


senate  and  fills  the  governor's 
place  when  the  governor  is  ill, 
absent,  or  when  he  dies  in  office. 
In  addition  to  the  governor, 
there  are  a  number  of  other 
elected  officials,  each  of  whom  is 
responsible  to  the  people  for  his 
share  of  the  state's  work.  Us- 
ually there  is  a  secretary  of 
state,  a  treasurer,  a  comptroller 
or  auditor,  and  an  attorney  gen- 
eral. Still  other  officials,  who 
may  be  elected  or  appointed,  as 
the  case  may  be,  are  the  superin- 
tendent or  commissioner  of  edu- 
cation, and  the  commissioners  of 
banking,  of  insurance,  of  high- 
ways, of  labor,  of  industries,  of 
public  works,  and  of  health. 

Boards  and  Commissions 

Every  state,  in  addition  to 
these  officials,  has  a  great  num- 
ber of  separate  miscellaneous 
offices,  boards  and  commissions, 
State  government  when  it  first 
began  was  a  very  simple  matter, 
and  included  only  a  few  elected 
officials  and  not  many  activities. 
But  the  stupendous  growth  of 
business,  the  rapid  increase  in 
wealth  and  population,  and  the 
endless  multiplication  of  social 
problems  have  led  to  an  enormous 
expansion  in  state  administration. 
Activities  have  increased  to  such 
an  extent,  in  fact,  that  only  a  few 
years  ago  New  York  State  found, 
on  investigation,  that  it  had  187 
separate  boards,  commissions 
and  other  agencies  carrying  on 
the  State's  work.  Massachusetts 
discovered  216,  and  Illinois  was 
attempting  to  do  its  work  with 
130  such  divisions. 

Civil  Service 

The  vast  army  of  public 
servants  necessary  to  carry 
on    these    many    activities    has 


tiilliii 

i^^Si 

mH^^^               *                    ^^^jgHWMH^          v.: 

Next  comes  the  Sanitary  and  Public  Health  work 
of  the  state.  Officials  of  a  state  government  inspect 
food  sold  in  the  stores  and  markets.  Inspectors  also 
TEST  THE  SCALES  AND   MEASURES   used   in  the 


sale  of  merchandise.  A  state  maintains  asylums  for 
the  insane,  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  feeble-minded. 
PENITENTIARIES  are  built  and  maintained  by  the 


state.  At  police  headquarters  a  "ROGUE'S  GAL- 
LERY" containing  photographs  of  all  prisoners,  is 
kept.  Here  also  is  kept  the  Bertillon  measurements  of 
each  prisoner.  The  measurements  are  very  complete 
and  include,  for  example,  the  length  of  the  prisoner's 
ears,  the  distance  between  his  eyes,  etc.  But  of  the 
first  importance  is  a  photograph  of  his  finger  print. 
This   is  very  carefully  filed   and   preserved. 


178 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


THE  STATE  GOVERNMENT  BUILDS  ROADS. 
This  interesting  photograph  shows  where  a  road 
built  by  one  state  stops  at  the  boundary  line  of  its 
neighboring    state.      A    state    government     BUILDS 


CANALS,  widens  and  deepens  streams,  and  CON- 
STRUCTS BRIDGES.  There  are  about  seventy-five 
State  Canals,  with  a  total  canal  length  of  slightly 
over  one  thousand  miles.  The  original  cost  of  build- 
ing these  seventy-five  canals  was  in  excess  of 
$366,000,000.     Added  to  this  sum  must  be  the  annual 


^ 

i 

cost  of  upkeep.  For  the  pleasure  and  instruction  of 
the  people,  the  states  maintain  great  PUBIe-IQ 
PARKS. 


brought  to  the  fore  the  great 
question  of  the  civil  service.  Ap- 
pointments to  the  majority  of 
state  positions  are  now  in  the 
hands  of  the  state  civil  service 
commission,  acting  under  state 
civil  service  laws.  No  matter 
how  efficiently  a  civil  service 
commission  may  act,  however, 
many  grave  problems  constantly 
arise  over  the  methods  that 
should  be  used  to  promote  civil 
service  employes,  to  keep  this 
great  body  of  men  and  women 
keyed  up  to  efficiency  and  to 
exclude  graft,  corruption,  and 
the  spoils  system  from  the  state 
service. 

State  Activities 

Although  state  activities  are 
many,  they  may  be  easily 
grouped  under  a  few  main  head- 
ings. To  begin  with,  there  is  the 
great  work  of  education,  su^^er- 
vised  by  a  state  board  of  educa- 
tion, and  directed  by  a  state 
superintendent  or  commissioner 
and  his  assistants.  Closely  re- 
lated to  education  is  the  duty  of 
a  state  to  draft  the  rules  for 
the  granting  of  licenses  to  those 
who  desire  to  become  doctors, 
lawyers,  dentists,  teachers,  pub- 
lic accountants,  or  to  enter  many 
other  professions  or  occupations. 

Public  Health 

Next  comes  the  sanitary  and 
public  health  work  of  a  state, 
usually  in  charge  of  a  state  de- 
partment of  health  and  its  com- 
missioner. There  are  still  to  be 
considered  the  great  welfare  and 
correctional  activities  carried  on 
in  asylums  for  the  insane,  the 
blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the 
feeble-minded,  and  in  the  many 
reformatories  and  prisons  and 
in  the  courts. 


STATE      GOVERNMENT 


179 


Public  Works 

These  unfortunates  in  our  wel- 
fare and  penal  institutions  must 
be  housed  in  buildings.  Here 
enters  another  important  state 
activity — public  works — such  as 
the  erection  of  public  buildings 
to  house  them.  Other  important 
public  works  include  the  making 
of  highways,  canals,  and  the  lay- 
ing out  of  state  parks. 

Agriculture 

Agriculture  is  very  important 
and  much  is  done  by  the  govern- 
ment of  a  state  to  see  that  this 
foundation  of  our  country's  eco- 
nomic life  is  well  looked  after. 

Development  and  Conservation 

The  development  of  water 
power,  the  conservation  of  for- 
ests, of  mines,  and  of  other  great 
wealth-giving  resources  are  all 
important  state  activities. 

Labor  Protected 

Labor  must  not  be  forgotten. 
Every  state  has  thrown  many 
safeguards  around  its  laboring 
population.  The  state  protects 
its  women  and  children  against 
long  hours  and  bad  conditions  of 
work.  In  some  states  minimum 
wage  commissions  have  been  set 
up  in  order  to  see  that  these 
workers  receive  at  least  living 
wages.  Workmen's  compensa- 
tion commissions  have  been  or- 
ganized to  do  away  with  the  long 
delays  resulting  from  court 
actions,  and  to  substitute  for  the 
former  inadequate  and  unjust 
payments  for  accidents  a  new 
system  of  legal  payments  based 
on  the  seriousness  of  the  injury 
received. 

State  Militia 

Still  another  function  of  state 
government  is  the  organization 


The  DEVELOPMENT  OF  WATER  POWER  is 
another  important  work  of  state  government.  Of 
recent    years,    the    states    have    become    exceedingly 


active  in  the  CONSERVATION  OF  FORESTS.  The 
country  is  very  rich  in  mineral  deposits.  These 
must  be  conserved.    The  total  value  of  the  mine  and 


quarry  products  of  the  United  States  in  1920  was 
$6,707,000,000.  In  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  alone, 
over  180,000  men  are  employed  in  mining  anthracite 
coal,  and  about  615,000,  in  bituminous  mines.  This 
is  a  group  of  PENNSYLVANIA  COAL  MINERS. 


180 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


A  state  government  protects  labor.  In  each  fac- 
tory, in  many  states,  it  posts  "LAWS  RELATING 
TO  INSPECTION  OF  FACTORIES",  and  compels 
factory  owners  to  conduct  their   business  according 


to  the  laws  governing  factories.  In  like  manner,  the 
owners  of  stores  and  shops  are  compelled  to  run  their 
business  according  to  "LAWS  RELATING  TO  MER- 
CANTILE   ESTABLISHMENTS."     To  do  away  with 


NOTICE 


The  undersigned,  an  Employer  within 
the  meaning  of  the  Workmen's  Compensa- 
tion Law  of  the  State  of  New  York,  hereby 
gives  notice  to  his  employees,  to  all  persons 
interested,  and  to  the  public,  that  he  has 
complied  with  a\\  the  rules  and  regulations 
^of  the  State  Industrial  Commission  and  that 
ired  the  payment 


the  lengthy  court  trials  in  cases  where  the  adjust- 
ment of  payments  for  accidents  are  considered,  many 
states  have  passed  "WORKMEN'S  COMPENSATION 
LAWS,"  and  require  that  a  statement  of  this  law  be 
posted  wherever  men  and  women  are  employed. 


of  the  state  militia,  which  in- 
cludes the  building  of  armories 
as  regimental  drill  centers.  Some 
states  also  have  a  police  system 
of  their  own.  The  state  con- 
stabularies of  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  are  examples. 

Business  Safeguarded 

One  of  the  largest  tasks  of 
state  government  concerns  it- 
self with  those  activities  which 
connect  government  and  busi- 
ness. States  hold  to  strict  super- 
vision and  accounting  banks  and 
other  financial  institutions,  such 
as  life  insurance  and  trust  com- 
panies, which  are  trusted  by  so 
many  thousands  of  people  with 
their  property  and  their  savings. 
Public  utilities,  such  as  rail- 
roads, gas  and  electric  light 
plants,  telegraph  and  telephone 
companies,  also  carry  on  their 
work  under  the  eye  of  the  state. 

Tax  Collections 

Last,  and  possibly  the  most 
important  of  all  the  duties  of  a 
state,  is  the  collection  of  taxes 
to  pay  for  all  these  activities  of 
state  government. 

Higher  State  Courts 

Each  state  has  its  own  system 
of  courts  and  Judges.  State 
judges  differ  in  two  important 
particulars  from  federal  judges. 
In  the  first  place,  in  the  majority 
of  states,  judges  are  elected  by 
popular  vote  instead  of  being 
appointed.  Some  states,  how- 
ever, have  their  higher  judges 
appointed  by  the  governor  with 
the  consent  of  the  state  senate. 
The  state  of  Massachusetts  goes 
still  farther  in  having  its  Gov- 
ernor appoint  all  judges  direct. 

State  judges,  in  the  second 
place,  instead  of  being  appointed 


STATE      GOVERNMENT 


181 


for  life  or  good  behavior,  in 
practically  all  cases  serve  for 
definite  terms  of  office  ranging 
from  two  to  twenty-one  years. 

At  the  head  of  the  state  judici- 
ary is  the  supreme  court,  some- 
times called  the  court  of  appeals; 
or,  as  in  New  Jersey,  the  court 
of  appeals  and  errors.  This  usu- 
ally consists  of  from  five  to  nine 
judges.  This  court  does  in  the 
state  what  the  federal  Supreme 
Court  does  for  the  Union.  It 
protects  the  rights  of  the  citizens 
guaranteed  in  the  state  constitu- 
tion, interprets  statute  law,  and 
keeps  the  different  parts  of  state 
government  in  their  place,  pre- 
venting them  from  overstepping 
their  constitutional  positions. 

In  about  one-third  of  the  states 
provision  has  been  made  for  su- 
perior or  circuit  courts,  occupy- 
ing about  the  same  place  and 
doing  about  the  same  kind  of 
work  in  the  states  that  the  Cir- 
cuit Courts  of  Appeal  perform  in 
the  National  Government.  These 
two  higher  courts  hear  cases 
which  are  appealed  from  the 
lower  courts. 

County  or  District  Courts 

The  county  or  district  court, 
or  court  of  common  pleas  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is  a  lower  court 
— a  trial  court^corresponding  in 
many  ways  in  its  position  in  the 
state  to  the  federal  district  court 
in  the  National  Government. 
This  court  settles  important  civil 
disputes  between  individuals ; 
tries  important  criminal  cases, 
and,  in  some  states,  looks  after 
the  rights  of  minor  orphan  chil- 
dren and  the  distribution  of 
property  left  by  people  who  have 
died.  In  most  states,  however, 
county,  probate,  circuit,  or  or- 


builds  armories.  When  one  DEPOSITS  MONEY  IN 
A  BANK  or  PAYS  AN  INSURANCE  PREMIUM,  it  is 
comforting  to  know  that  the  banks,  life  insurance 
companies,    and     other    financial     institutions     must 


give  a  s-nzi  accounting  to  the  state.  Public  Utilities 
such  as  SUBWAYS,  railways,  etc.,  also  operate  under 
state  supervision. 


182 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


^     ^^^^^^^^^^B 

^^ 

r 

E 

SS 

«kll 

iillillHI 

*^i**"V 

Each  state  has  a  system  of  courts  and  judges. 
All  the  lower  courts — county,  city,  magistrate  and 
municipal  courts — are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
state.  The  interior  of  all  courts  is  about  the 
same  as  here  shown.     One  should  never  forget  that 


trial  by  jury  is  a  constitutional  right  of  every  one 
in  this  country.  Therefore,  each  court  room  has  a 
place  built  especially  for  the  twelve  jurors.  Note 
the  chairs  to  the  left  of  the  first  photograph.     If  we 


are  to  have  good  laws  and  good  courts,  everyone 
must  recognize  his  responsibilities  and  help  in  what- 
ever way  he  can.  if  we  desire  good  judges  we  must 
vote  for  honest,  capable,  and   impartial   men. 


phans'  courts  are  organized  sepa- 
rately to  attend  to  these  very 
important  matters. 

Lower  Courts 

Many  minor  crimes  or  misde- 
meanors are  committed  in  every 
community.  For  example,  a 
man  may  become  drunk,  or  drive 
his  automobile  faster  than  the 
law  allows  or  disobey  other 
traffic  regulations,  or  he  may 
have  a  fight  with  his  neighbor, 
or  play  craps.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, in  the  vast  majority  of  in- 
stances, to  hold  a  person  commit- 
ting these  misdemeanors  for  a 
county  or  a  district  court  which 
is  set  aside  to  try  the  more  seri- 
ous criminal  and  civil  cases. 

Possibly  75  to  90  per  cent  of 
the  cases  which  arise  in  a  com- 
munity are  of  this  minor  char- 
acter just  described.  All  states 
have  organized  7ower  courts  to 
look  after  such  matters. 

In  the  country  districts,  jus- 
tices of  the  peace,  usually  elected 
by  the  voters  of  a  township  or 
some  other  county  subdivision, 
attend  to  such  matters.  In  vil- 
lages, towns,  and  small  cities,  the 
magistrates'  courts  do  the  same 
kind  of  work.  In  both  of  these 
courts  it  is  possible  to  look  after 
minor  civil  cases  as  well  as  crim- 
inal cases.  As^  a  community 
grows  larger  and  cases  become 
more  numerous  this  double  task 
is  not  possible. 

In  the  larger  cities  the  magis- 
trates or  police  courts  confine 
themselves  to  trying  persons 
charged  with  minor  offences.  In 
Chicago,  in  New  York,  and  other 
large  cities,  for  example,  special 
magistrates'  courts  are  even 
set  aside  to  look  after  those  who 
violate  traffic  regulations,  those 
who  commit   immoral  acts,  and 


STATE      GOVERNMENT 


183 


families  which  have  domestic  diffi- 
culties of  one  kind  or  another. 
Juvenile  Courts 
It  is  now  generally  recognized  in 
America  that  children  who  commit 
crimes  or  who  need  correction  for  way- 
wardness should  not  be  haled  before 
the  regular  courts  and  brought  into  con- 
tact with  hardened  criminals  and  their 
vicious  influences.  Provision  is  now 
made  by  most  states  for  children's  or 
juvenile  courts.  Judge  Ben  Lindsey  of 
Denver,  Colorado,  is  known  the  world 
over  for  the  work  he  has  done  with 
juvenile  offenders. 

Poor  Man's  Courts 

City  or  municipal  courts  are  also 
provided  in  cities  for  the  settlement  of 
thousands  of  small  lawsuits  often  in- 
volving workingmen  and  their  wages. 
These  are  frequently  called  the  people's 
or  the  poor  man's  courts. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  the  minor 
civil  cases  coming  up  in  these  courts, 
which  individually  may  not  amount  to 


much  but  which  in  the  aggregate  touch 
thousands  of  poor  people,  should  be 
handled  quickly,  •  inexpensively  and 
fairly.  Otherwise  much  dissatisfaction 
is  sure  to  arise. 

If  we  are  to  have  good  state  laws  and 
courts,  every  one  must  feel  his  responsi- 
bility and  help  in  whatever  way  he  can. 
If  we  desire  able  and  upright  judges, 
we  must  vote  for  honest,  capable  and 
impartial  men. 

Throughout  this  chapter  emphasis  has 
been  placed  upon  the  fact  that  the  state 
is  that  part  of  American  government 
which  touches  the  daily  life  of  the  peo- 
ple. It  is  impossible,  however,  for  a 
state  to  do  all  of  this  work  through  its 
own  machinery,  for  the  task  of  adminis- 
tration would  be  too  great.  A  state 
depends  upon  local  subdivisions  to  do 
many  things  for  it.  It  delegates  many 
of  its  powers  to  units  of  local  govern- 
ment. State  government  cannot  be  un- 
derstood unless  one  also  knows  some- 
thing of  the  county,  the  town,  the  vil- 
lage, and  the  city. 


"  A  state  grows  in  power  as  its  citizens  become  enlightened." — Storrs. 

T     T     'r 

"  The  work  of  a  state  in  the  long  run  is  the  work  of  the  individuals  compos- 
ing itr— Mill. 

rl?     4'     4? 

"  The  very  idea  of  the  power  and  the  right  of  the  people  to  establish  govern- 
ment pre-supposes  the  duty  of  every  individual  to  obey  the  established  govern- 
ment."— Washington. 

ir      "h      "ir 

"The  law  of  nations  is  founded  upon  reason  and  justice,  and  the  rules  of 
conduct  governing  individual  relations  between  citizens  or  subjects  of  a  civilized 
state  are  equally  applicable  as  between  enlightened  nations." — Grover  Cleveland. 

4.    4^    4. 

"  Every  citizen  should  obey  the  law,  even  when  striving  to  alter  it.  .  .  . 
He  need  not  praise  the  law  which  he  obeys.  He  need  not  pretend  to  think  it 
wise,  carefully  drawn,  just  or  expedient,  but  he  should  obey  it,  even  though  striv- 
ing meanwhile,  by  every  lawful  means,  to  convince  the  majority  of  the  justice 
of  his  objections.  .  .  .  To  aid  him  in  his  fight  for  good  laws  the  ballot  is  given 
him."—/?.  M.  McElroy. 


^BUftBilMi."  J:.. 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


THE  VILLAGE  MEETING 

Practically  every  citizen  is  a  part  of  four    Governments:    viz.,    National    Government,    State 
Government,   County   Government   and    Village  Government. 


CHAPTER  XII 


Local  Government 


Local  Government  is  a  Matter  of  State  Control  Exercised  in  accordance 
with  State  Legislation  within  the  Rules  of  a  State  Constitution 


PRACTICALLY  every  citizen  of  the 
United  States  is  a  part  of  at  least 
three  governments,  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  people  of  four  or  even  more. 
First,  he  belongs  to  the  National  Govern- 
ment; second,  the  state;  third,  the 
county,  and  with  few  exceptions,  one 
or  more  other  units  of  government  such 
as  a  city,  a  town,  a  village,  or  of  a  school, 

fire,  sanitary,  drain-      

age  or  other  special 
district. 

A  few  facts  from 
Illinois  will  indi- 
cate the  variety  and 
the  number  of  these 
state  subdivisions. 
This  West- 

ern State  has  102 
counties,  70  cities 
with  a  population 
of  5000  or  over,  1400 
townships,  about 
800  villages,  over 
12,000  school  dis- 
tricts, and,  in  addi- 
tion, a  variety  of 
other  districts  such 
as  those  formed  for 
sanitary,  park  and 
drainage  purposes. 

No  wonder  it  is  so 
difficult  for  an  individual  to  understand 
all  the  details  of  local  government.  The 
details  are  so  many  that  it  is  only  pos- 
sible in  this  chapter  to  suggest  the 
variety  of  forms  local  government  takes 
and  some  of  the  important  officials  who 
look  after  our  local  needs.  Nevertheless, 
as  these  parts  of  government  touch  our 
daily  life  at  every  turn,  everyone  should 
take  as  active  an  interest  as  possible  in 
the  local  government  of  the  community 
in  which  he  lives. 


100  Different  Ways 

TXyTHERE  the  Nat- 
^  ^  ional  Government 
touches  the  individual 
once,  and  a  state  gov- 
ernment ten  times,  local 
government  comes  Into 
contact  with  the  indivi- 
dual in  a  hundred  differ- 
ent ways... An  efficient 
and  honest  local  govern- 
ment means  everything 
to  the  happiness  of  the 
people  and  is  the  founda- 
tion upon  which  stands 
a  strong  state  and  nation. 


Smaller  Units  Necessary 

The  very  same  reasons  that  make  it 
necessary  and  wise  for  every  state  to 
look  after  its  own  needs,  also  make  it 
desirable  that  each  state  be  sub-divided, 
for  convenience  in  governing,  into 
smaller  units.  These  sub-divisions  look 
after  their  own  local  needs;  they  are 
also  utilized  by  the  states  as  convenient 
agencies  to  carry 
out  state  laws  cov- 
ering certain  mat- 
ters, such  as, 
police  protection, 
the  collection  of 
taxes,  caring  for  the 
poor  and  the  insane, 
and  providing  for 
public  schools. 

A  state,  in  other 
words,  finds  it  desir- 
able and  wise  to 
delegate  some  of  its 
powers  to  these 
smaller  units.  In 
this  manner  the  exe- 
cution of  state  law 
is  made  more  flex- 
ible and  better 
suited  to  the  vary- 
ing conditions 
which  exist  in  different  rural  districts, 
villages  and  cities. 

It  is  not  altogether  correct,  however, 
to  compare  this  division  of  tasks  between 
the  state  and  its  subdivisions  to  the  di- 
vision that  exists  between  a  state  and 
the  National  Government.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  state  governments  have  abso- 
lute control  over  their  own  affairs.  The 
National  Government  cannot  step  in  and 
cannot  interfere  with  their  work.  Local 
state  units,  on  the  contrary,  are  merely 


185 


186 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


IOWA 


MISSOURI 


'KENTUCKY 


Each  State  of  the  United  States  is  divided  into 
counties;  the  counties,  into  smaller  units.  THE  MAP 
SHOWS  THE  COUNTIES  IN  THE  STATE  OF 
ILLINOIS.  In  the  counties  are  Iqpated  cities,  towns 
and  villages.    Each  of  these  divisions  of  the  state  has 


local  government.  THE  STATE  LEGISLATURE 
OF  ILLINOIS,  for  example,  has  jurisdiction  over  the 
government  of  the  counties,  townships,  cities,  towns, 
and  villages  within  the  State.  Local  government 
is  affected  by  local  conditions,  therefore,  its  form 
differs  as  local  conditions  differ. 


the  creatures  —  the  agents  —  of 
the  state.  Local  government  is 
a  matter  of  state  control  exer- 
cised in  accordance  with  state 
legislation  within  the  rules  of  a 
state  constitution.  Local  gov- 
ernment is  a  child  of  the  state. 
It  can  be  organized  or  divided 
up,  or  done  away  with,  as  the 
state  thinks  best.  Cities  and 
other  units  object,  at  times,  to 
this  control  of  the  state  when  it 
becomes  arbitrary,  or  is  used  for 
partisan  or  corrupt  purposes. 

Many  states  have  put  in  their 
constitutions  home  rule  provis- 
ions protecting  local  government, 
especially  cities  in  their  organ- 
ization and  work,  but  within  such 
restrictions,  a  state  is  free  to 
act  as  it  pleases.  A  state  leg- 
islature may  itself  grant  cities 
or  towns  or  counties  the  right 
to  govern  themselves  to  what- 
ever degree  seems  best.  As  this 
question  of  home  rule  mostly 
concerns  the  city,  it  is  discussed 
more  fully  in  the  following 
chapter. 

Local  Government  Varies 

The  variety  of  forms  and  names 
used  in  American  local  govern- 
ment is  due  to  the  fact  that  in 
the  United  States  it  had  its  roots 
in  the  earliest  settlements  that 
were  made — at  Jamestown,  at 
New  Amsterdam,  and  at  Plymouth. 
The  county  and  the  town,  for 
example,  the  two  most  important 
and  widely  used  units  of  local 
government,  were  brought  by  the 
early  Colonial  settlers  from  Eng- 
land, where  they  had  already 
gone  through  a  long  history  of 
development.  During  their  long 
development  in  the  United 
States,  they  have  assumed  many 


LOCAL      GOVERNMENT 


187 


forms     with     a     multitude     o£ 
elected  officials. 

New  England  States 

The  reader  may  live  in  New 
England.  Here  he  will  find  the 
town  and  the  town  meeting  the 
vital  units  of  local  government. 
The  states  of  New  England  are 
divided  into  counties,  but  from 
the  viewpoint  of  a  citizen  and 
his  personal  needs,  the  county  is 
not  of  very  great  importance.  In 
the  New  England  States  it  is  in 
the  main  simply  a  unit  of  judi- 
cial administration. 

The  town  form  of  government 
— the  vital  local  subdivision  in 
New  England — was  developed  by 
the  early  Colonists  who  lived  in 
small  compact  settlements.  It 
was  a  very  democratic  form  of 
government  in  which  all  the 
freemen  of  the  town  shared.  The 
town  meeting,  where  everyone 
could  individually  express  an 
opinion,  was  held  several  times 
a  year.  Later,  as  the  town  grew 
in  size,  a  small  committee  known 
as  selectmen  was  duly  appointed 
to  carry  on  the  town's  business 
between  town  meetings. 

New  England  still  retains  this 
simple  method  of  conducting 
town  affairs.  Town  policies  and 
laws  in  Massachusetts  are  still 
made  by  all  the  voters  at  town 
mass  meetings.  In  addition  to 
the  selectmen,  other  officials  are 
now  elected,  for  example,  a 
town  treasurer,  a  town  clerk, 
and  a  school  committee,  the 
chief  of  police  and  the  head 
of  the  fire  department.  The 
chairman  of  the  board  of  select- 
men is  the  chief  executive  offi- 
cer of  th.e  town.  The  New  Eng- 
land town,  which  has  the  same 
general  powers  as  a  city  but  does 
not  act  under  a  charter,  also  does 


^;^ftMi^'*k^^ 


v«iF*#«»gr*'A  ». 


Local  government  in  New  England  had  its  origin  in 
the  small,  compact  town.  This  is  a  picture  of  NEW 
AMSTERDAM,    now    New    York    City.      A    form    of 


local  government  that  is  suitable  to  a  small  section 
in  the  East  would  hardly  meet  the  needs  of  THE 
GREAT  FRUIT  SECTIONS  OF  THE  STATE  OF 
CALIFORNIA,    or    the    vast    stretches    of    GRAZING 


LANDS  OF  THE  SOUTH  WEST.     Each  section  has 
a  form  of  local  government  to  meet  its  own  needs. 


188 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


The  HARDY  MOUNTAINEERS  OF  KENTUCKY 
have  developed  different  forms  of  local  government 
from  those  found  in  New  England  and  the  Middle 
Atlantic   States.     This   is  true,   also,   of  the  form   of 


local  government  developed  by  the  people  of  the 
Southeastern  and  COTTON  GROWING  STATES. 
There  are  over  3,000  counties  in  the  United  States, 
varying  from  a  few  square  miles  in  area  to  Custer 
County,  Montana,  with  its  20,175  square  miles.  Nat- 
urally, no  general  description  of  local  government 
will  cover  exactly  the  organization  of  any  particular 
locality — county,  town  or  village,  township,  or  city. 


many  things  for  the  state  gov- 
ernment, such  as  collection  of 
state  taxes,  keeping  records  of 
births,  deaths,  marriages,  land 
transfers,  and  administering 
state  health  laws.  It  is  also  a 
district  used  for  state  and  na- 
tional elections. 

South  and  West 

The  reader  may  live  south  of 
the  Mason  and  Dixon  Line,  or  in 
one  of  the  Far  Western  States. 
Here  the  county  and  not  the 
town  becomes  the  most  impor- 
tant local  governmental  unit.  It 
is  very  natural  that  the  New 
England  town  form  of  govern- 
ment has  never  been  used  in 
these  less  thickly  settled  parts  of 
the  United  States  except  those 
occupied  earlier  by  people  from 
New  England.  In  states  like 
Michigan,  the  town  meeting  still 
survives,  although  the  meetings 
are  less  often  held  and  do  less 
business.  The  county,  natur- 
ally, covers  a  much  larger  area 
than  the  town.  In  the  South, 
with  its  huge  tobacco  and  cotton 
plantations  spread  over  a  wide 
territory,  people  are  much  more 
scattered,  and  the  county  is  a 
much  easier  unit  of  government 
to  use.  This  is  also  true  of  the 
vast  stretches  of  land  to  be  found 
in  many  of  the  Far  Western 
States. 

The  county,  however,  is  not 
confined  alone  to  the  South  and 
the  Far  West.  Every  state  in 
the  Union,  with  the  exjpeption  of 
Louisiana,  where  the  correspond- 
ing unit  is  called  a  parish,  is  di- 
vided into  counties.  The  county 
is  universal,  although  more'  im- 
portant in  some  parts  of  the 
country  than  in  others.  Alto- 
gether, in  the  U  ited  States, 
there    are    over    3000    counties, 


LOCAL      GOVERNMENT 


189 


varying  in  size  from  Bristol 
County,  R.  I.,  with  its  25  square 
miles  to  .San  Bernardino  County, 
California,  covering  thousands. 

Importance  of  the  County 

The  county  is  important  for 
many  things.  It  usually  con- 
structs and  keeps  in  repair 
bridges  and  highways.  The 
county  almshouse  and  farm,  and 
poor  relief,  are  part  of  its  wel- 
fare work  and,  in  some  cases, 
hospitals. 

The  county  is  also  a  very  im- 
portant unit  of  administration 
for  the  state,  since  it,  in  many 
places,  looks  after  elections,  se- 
lects polling  places,  appoints 
election  officials  and  keeps  a  rec- 
ord of  election  results.  It  is 
usually  a  unit  from  which  repre- 
sentatives are  nominated  and 
elected  to  one  or  both  parts  of 
a  state  legislature. 

The  county  also  acts  for  the 
state  in  administering  criminal 
law,  police  matters,  and  in  col- 
lecting taxes.  The  county  court, 
the  county  judge,  the  county 
prosecutor,  and,  of  course,  when 
a  conviction  is  made,  the  county 
jail,  compose  an  important  group 
of  law  enforcement  agencies. 

You  record  your  will,  or  a  deed 
of  sale  to  a  piece  of  property  that 
you  buy,  or  a  mortgage  on  your 
house,  in  a  countj^  office.  Many 
states  use  the  local  unit  for  the 
control  of  schools,  with  a  county 
school  superintendent  in  charge. 

The  reader  will  note  that  we 
have  not  stated  that  any  one 
county  does  all  of  these  things. 
The  practice  varies  considerably 
in  the  different  states. 

Government  of  Counties 

With  the  exception  of  Louisi- 
ana and  Rhode  Island,  all  coun- 


^    C  LEAR  FIELD 


COUNTY  \ 

/SUSflufHANNA     I    ^   \CHEST      IWHITE   i      READE  / 

/      .!^^  I     *"    (  '  l 

/  ^St"!"        ^s I  )  ^ / 

./(cLBARFIELD      /DEAN  \  . 

1  ,-to--<>>oi.Jtow.h  J  \       A 

BARR      1    •-J'^AST  ■:\  ''  /    i 

L  1  x^^CHCST^rniMit  /    _■> 


L \_\  \ 

/  /  \.  Zm/o'   L^  " 


L^:2^-L^^  \. ,.-•■"" 

/  /  I        hickiVlKO     '  * 

SOMERSET  COUNTY  I 


<mt  COUNTY  ROADS 
^  STATE  ROADS 
—  TOWNSHIP  BOUNDARiaS 


Each  county  in  a  state,  as  for  example,  CAMBRIA 
COUNTY,  PENNSYLVANIA,  is  divided  into  town- 
ships.   This  map  also  shows  the  location  of  the  towns 


and  villages  in  the  county.  It  shows,  too,  how  the 
State  Government  of  Pennsylvania  cooperates  with 
the  County  Government  of  Cambria  in  the  BUILDING 
OF  GOOD  ROADS.  This  is  a  very  important  work  of 
both  state  and  local  governments.  Good  roads  have 
done  more  than  anything  else  to  make  farm  life  more 
attractive.    This  is  especially  true  since  the  invention 


or  the  automobile.  The  DRAINING  OF  MARSH 
LANDS  within  the  county  or  township  is  another 
important  function  of  local  government. 


190 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


Each  County  has  a  Court  House  in  which  the  work 
of  the  County  is  done. 

In  a  County  Court  House  usually  will  be  found  the 
offices  of  the  County  Supervisors,  County  Sheriff, 
Prosecuting  or  District  Attorney,  Coroner,  County 
Clerk,  County   Treasurer  and   the   County    Registrar. 

Should  you  wish  to  record  your  will,  or  a  deed  of 
sale  to  some  property,  or  a  mortgage  to  your  house, 
or  pay  your  county  taxes,  you  must  go  to  the 
County  Court  House.  A  record  of  the  births,  mar- 
riages and  deaths  of  the  county  is  kept  in  the 
County  Court  House.  In  the  County  Court  House 
THE  COUNTY  COURT  HOLDS  ITS  SESSIONS.  The 
County  Courts  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State. 


ties  are  governed  by  a  board  of 
supervisors  or  county  commis- 
sioners. These  boards  vary  in 
size  from  as  few  as  three  to  pos- 
sibly as  many  as  fifty  members. 
The  manner  of  their  election  also 
varies  greatly  as  one  goes  from 
state  to  state.  The  county 
board  of  supervisors,  or  com- 
missioners, usually  has  charge  of 
the  county  poor  farm,  highways 
and  bridges,  poor  relief,  elec- 
tions, and  much  miscellaneous 
work. 

In  addition  to  the  county  su- 
pervisors, there  are  many  inde- 
pendent elected  officers,  among 
others  a  county  sheriff,  possibly 
the  oldest  and  most  important 
official,  also  a  prosecuting  or  dis- 
trict attorney,  a  coroner,  a  county 
clerk,  a  county  treasurer,  and  a 
county  registrar. 

Township  Government 

Instead  of  living  in  New  Eng- 
land or  the  South,  the  reader 
may  live  in  one  of  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States — New  York,  New 
Jersey  or  Pennsylvania — or  in  one 
of  the  Middle  Western  States 
of  the  Union.  Here  he  will  find 
that  the  county  and  the  New 
England  town  form  of  govern- 
ment have  been  combined  in 
what  is  often  called  the  mixed 
type  of  local  government — the 
county-township  plan.  The 
township,  or  town,  in  these  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States  is  a 
subdivision  of  the  county  and  of 
much  less  importance  than  it  is 
in  New  England.  Each  town- 
ship has  its  own  board  of  trus- 
tees, or  a  supervisor  and  town 
chairman.  It  also  has  its  clerk, 
treasurer,  and  assessors.  In 
these  states,  often,  the  town  su- 
pervisors, acting  together,  form 
the  county  board  of  supervisors 


LOCAL      GOVERNMENT 


191 


for  the  transaction  of  county  business. 
In  some  states  as  Illinois,  the  town  form 
prevails  in  one  part  of  the  state,  the 
county  in  another. 

In  the  Far  West,  the  county,  instead 
of  being  divided  into  townships,  is 
usually  cut  up  into  districts  called  pre- 
cincts. School,  Judicial  and  road  districts 
are  also  used,  but  the  county  is  the  all 
important  local  unit. 

Where  the  population  in  a  part  of  a 
township  or  a  county  becomes  thickly 
settled,  there  is  generally  a  demand  for 
a  different  kind  of  government,  so  that 
streets,  water  supply,  sewerage  and  light- 
ing, and  other 
interests  may 
be  better 
looked  after. 
A  village,  or  a 
borough,  or  an 
i  n  c  o  r  porated 
town  is  then 
organized  and 
incorporated 
under  a  general 
state  law.  Al- 
though by  such 
act  it  receives 
the  right  to 
look  after  its 
own  affairs,  it 
still  remains  a 
part  of  the 
township,  and 
county. 


THE  VILLAGE  OFFICERS  OF  DESLACS,  NORTH 
DAKOTA,  1922:  This  is  the  first  time  in  history  that 
women  have  filled  all  political  offices  in  a  com- 
munity. In  the  front  row,  left  to  right,  are:  The 
Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees;  the  Trustee, 
Third  Ward;  the  Trustee,  Second  Ward;  and  the 
Treasurer.  In  the  top  row,  the  Justice  of  the  Peace| 
the  Marshal;  the  Clerk  of  the  Village  and  the 
Assessor. 


Village  Government 

Village  government  is  very  simple. 
Usually  at  a  village  meeting  a  board  of 
trustees  or  a  council,  and  a  village  presi- 
dent or  mayor  are  elected  by  the  quali- 
fied voters  to  look  after  village  affairs. 
All  questions  regarding  legislation  and 
taxes  are  voted  upon  by  popular  vote  at 
the  village  meeting.  There  are  over 
10,000  villages  in  the  United  States. 

As  a  village  grows  larger  and  its  needs 
become   more    complicated,    it   may   be 


chartered  by  the  state  as  a  city  and  be 
given  a  more  adequate  form  of  local 
government. 

Other  Forms 

There  are  still  other  local  government 
forms  which  should  be  mentioned,  such 
as  school,  judicial,  road,  sanitary,  water 
control  and  hre  control  districts.  There 
are  many  others  but  it  would  take  a  chap- 
ter to  mention  them.  The  school  district 
is  probably  the  most  important,  as  it  is 
the  most  widespread  and  the  one  with 
which  most  rural  inhabitants  come  into 
close  contact  and  personal  relationship. 

School  districts 
are  formed  for 
the  purpose  of 
buying  land, 
building 
schools,  hiring 
and  paying 
teachers,  and 
levying  school 
taxes.  Most 
school  districts 
are  in  charge 
of  a  school 
committee  or 
board. 

Where  the 
National  Gov- 
ernment touch- 
es the  individ- 
ual once,  and 
the  state  gov- 
ernment ten 
times,  local  government  comes  into  con- 
tact with  the  individual  in  a  hundred 
different  ways.  But  usually  the  aver- 
age citizen  knows  less  about  the  details 
of  his  own  community  than  he  does 
about  his  state  and  national  govern- 
ments. But,  nevertheless,  virile,  effi- 
cient, and  honest  local  government 
means  everything  to  the  happiness  of 
the  people  and  is  the  foundation 
upon  which  stands  a  strong  state  and 
nation. 


^  f^^^l}^y 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society  Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 

THE  AMERICAN  CITY  OF  THE  FUTURE 

The    location    of    future    public    buildings,    transportation,    generous    park    and    play- 
ground space — these  and  many  other     needs    will    be    planned    far  ahead 


CHAPTER  XIII 


The  American  City 

The  American  City  Dweller  Meets  His  Local  Government  and  Its 
Services  Every  Hour  of  the  Day 


SMITH  is  the  average  American  city 
dweller.  He  lives  in  a  small  house 
or  rents  a  flat  of  six  rooms.  When 
he  and  his  family  get  up  in  the  morning, 
they  wash  with  pure  water  supplied  by 
the  City  Water  Department.  This  water 
is  often  brought  many  miles  in  aque- 
ducts and  is  provided  in  generous 
quantities  and  at  small  cost  to  Smith  and 
his  family,  for 
drinking,  cooking, 
and  bathing. 

The  Smith  family 
sits  down  to  a 
breakfast  cooked  by 
gas  or  electricity, 
supplied  by  munici- 
pally owned  gas  or 
electric  light  com- 
panies or  by  private 
companies  con- 
trolled by  a  public 
service  commission. 
The  City  Health 
Department  guar- 
antees the  milk 
used  on  the  cereal 
at  breakfast  —  its 
quality  and  its  pur- 
ity. After  break- 
fast, the  garbage  is 
put  in  a  can,  later  to 

be  removed  by  the  City  Street  Cleaning 
Department.  Dish-water,  instead  of  be- 
ing thrown  into  the  streets,  as  is  still 
the  custom  in  many  backward  countries, 
is  carried  away  in  city  built  sewers. 

In  some  Oriental  countries,  where 
buzzards,  dogs  and  other  animals  still 
constitute  the  sole  scavenging  depart- 
ment, and  where  there  is  little  if  any  re- 
gard for  sanitation,  "  it  is  all  right  to 
have  eyes  "  some  one  has  said,  "  but  it  is 
a  misfortune  to  have  a  nose." 


The  City  Beautiful 

A  S  a  citizen,  think  of 
the  future  of  your 
city.  It  is  going  to  grow. 
Insist  that  your  agents, 
the  city  officials,  have  a 
plan  which  will  provide 
for  future  needs.  Do 
everything  possible  to 
make  your  city  beautiful, 
orderly,  convenient. 
Never  miss  an  oppor- 
tunity to  cast  your  vote 
for   good  city   government! 


Mr.  Smith  goes  to  his  work  on  a  trolley 
car,  an  elevated,  or  a  subway  train,  and 
pays  a  fare  which  is  fixed  by  law.  If  he 
works  in  a  factory  he  is  protected  from 
unguarded  machinery  and  carries  on  his 
occupation  under  conditions  of  health 
prescribed  by  law  and  enforced  by  in- 
spectors of  city  and  state.  In  case  of 
fire,  an  efficient  City  Fire  Department  is 
on  the  scene  in  a  few 
minutes  with  its 
apparatus,  ready  to 
put  out  the  fire,  and, 
if  need  be,  to  save 
his  life.  If  Smith  is 
run  over  by  an  auto- 
mobile, traffic  police- 
men make  a  right  of 
way  for  the  city 
ambulance  so  that 
a  city  doctor  may 
reach  him  as  quickly 
as  possible. 


More  Safeguards 

Mr.  Smith,  in- 
stead of  working  in 
a  factory,  may  be  a 
clerk  working  in  a 
ten,  fifteen,  o  r 
thirty  story  office 
building.  Here,  too, 
city  government  has  thrown  its  safe- 
guards around  him.  The  skyscraper  has 
been  built  according  to  building  laws 
laid  down  by  the  City  Building  Depart- 
ment. The  elevators  which  take  him  up 
and  down  are  regularly  inspected.  The 
building  may  be  furnished  with  auto- 
matic fire  extinguishers  required  by  city 
ordinance.  Every  step  Smith  takes 
throughout  the  day  finds  some  city  de- 
partment, bureau  or  official  assisting  or 
protecting  him. 


193 


194 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


THE  MAN  WHO  LIVES  IN  A  CITY  meets  his 
local  government  almost  every  minute  of  the  day. 
The  water  in  his  home  is  supplied  by  the  city.     The 


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building  in  which  he  works — a  shop,  factory  or  a  sky- 
scraper with  hundreds  of  offices — WAS  BUILT 
ACCORDING  TO  THE  BUILDING  LAWS  OF  THE 
CITY  and  is  at  regular  times  examined  by  city  offi- 
cials to  see  that  it  is  safe  and  kept  in  good  condition. 


THE   STREETS   of   a   city   are    built,   kept   in    repair, 
cleaned,  policed,  and  lighted  by  the  city  government. 


Public  Schools 

Smith's  children  go  to  school. 
A  special  traffic  policeman  sees 
to  it  that  they  cross  the  busy 
streets  in  safety.  The  school 
building  in  which  they  study  is 
built  along  modern  lines;  it  is 
well  lighted  and  fireproof.  The 
teachers  have  passed  city  exam- 
inations, certifying  to  their  fit- 
ness to  teach.  Doctors  and 
nurses  from  the  City  Depart- 
ment of  Health  examine  the  chil- 
dren regularly  and  watch  for 
signs  of  contagious  diseases. 
Lunches,  in  some  cities,  are  fur- 
nished to  the  pupils  at  cost. 

Public  Libraries 

After  school  the  children  take 
advantage  of  the  recreational  fa- 
cilities maintained  at  city  ex- 
pense. The  oldest  boy  who  is, 
perhaps,  interested  in  radio,  goes 
to  the  public  library  to  read  the 
latest  magazines  and  books  on  the 
subject.  The  younger  boy  plays 
baseball  in  the  city  park,  while 
the  little  one  goes  to  a  neighbor- 
hood playground  in  charge  of  an 
experienced  playground  teacher. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Smith  and  the 
family,  on  a  winter's  evening,  go 
to  a  free  lecture  in  the  school- 
house  or  community  building. 
On  a  summer's  evening  a  munic- 
ipal band  concert  may  entertain 
them.  As  they  go  home,  they 
walk  along  a  street  lighted  by 
gas  or  electricity,  paid  for  by 
city  taxes.  The  American  city 
dweller  meets  his  local  govern- 
ment and  its  services  from  the 
time  he  arises  to  the  time  he  goes 
to  bed.  The  city  policeman,  even 
while  Smith  and  his  family  sleep, 
is  patrolling  his  beat,  and  the 
city  fireman  is  ready  at  a  min- 
ute's notice  to  answer  the  clang 
of  the  fire  bell. 


THE     AMERICAN     CITY 


195 


Is  it  any  wonder  that  every 
city  dweller  should  take  an  active 
interest  in  his  municipal  govern- 
ment? Until  one  thus  stops  and 
catalogs  his  daily  dependence 
upon  the  government  of  the  city 
in  which  he  lives,  one  has  only 
a  slight  idea  of  its  impor- 
tance, and  its  many  services 
to  the  people.  "  City  Govern- 
ment," remarks  a  recent  writer, 
"  touches  more  people  at  more 
points,  and  more  frequently,  than 
any  other  branch  of  government." 

Growth  of  American  Cities 

The  most  striking  social  fact 
of  the  last  century  is  the  amazing 
growth  of  American  cities,  A 
few  figures  will  impress  the 
rapidity  of  this  growth  on  the 
mind  of  the  reader. 

In  1820,  the  U  ited  States 
had  only  a  dozen  towns  with 
populations  exceeding  8,000. 
Geography  students  in  those 
days  had  little  trouble  naming 
all  the  American  cities.  To- 
day, such  a  feat  would  be  impos- 
sible. In  the  early  days  of  the 
last  century,  only  five  per  cent 
of  all  the  people  in  this  country 
lived  in  cities.  Even  as  late  as 
1860,  New  York  had  just  passed 
the  million  mark,  while  Chicago, 
with  its  109,260  people,  Detroit, 
with  its  45,619,  and  Kansas  City 
with  its  4,418,  were  only  at  the 
threshold  .  of  their  wonderful 
municipal  careers. 

Look  at  them  today!  New 
York  City,  the  leading  city  of  the 
world,  approaching  the  six  mil- 
lion mark,  Chicago,  with  2,701,- 
705,  Detroit  with  almost  a  mil- 
lion, and  Kansas  City  with 
324,410!  What  a  contrast  these 
figures  make  with  those  of  1860 ! 

One-tenth  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States  today  live  in  the 


American  cities  have  grown  very  rapidly  in  the 
last  sixty  years.  Now  over  half  the  population  of 
this  country  lives  in  cities.  In  1860,  the  United  States 
had    JUST   26   CITIES   WITH    A    POPULATION    OF 


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30,000  or  over.  Now  there  are  over  100  with  a  POPU  L A- 
TION  EXCEEDING  50,000.  New  York,  alone,  has  a 
population  of  5,620,000.  Then  comes  Chicago  with 
2,701,705;  Philadelphia,  1,823,779;  Detroit,  993,678; 
Cleveland,  796,836;  St.  Louis,  773,000;  Boston, 
747,923;  Baltimore,  733,826;  and  Pittsburgh,  588,193. 
That  part  of  the   United   States  which   contains  the 


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greatest  number  of  cities  and,  naturally,  that  part 
that  is  the  MOST  DENSELY  POPULATED,  is 
shown  on  this  map.  The  second  most  densely  popu- 
lated area  in  this  country  is  the  State  of  Illinois. 


196 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


The  growth  of  American  cities  is  due  to  many 
causes.  Railroads  have  greatly  added  to  their  de- 
velopment. Only  THE  MAIN  LINES  OF  THE  RAIL- 
ROADS are  shown  on  this  map.    Industries  have  also 


added  to  this  growth.  They  constantly  demand  a 
large  and  increasing  number  of  workers.  The  auto- 
mobile  has  encouraged   the   building   of  good   roads, 


and  good  roads  increase  the  size  of  cities  by  enabling 
the  farmer  to  bring  with  ease  his  produce  to  the  city. 
This  map  shows  THE  GOOD  ROAD  SYSTEM  OF 
THE  STATE  OF   PENNSYLVANIA. 


cities  of  New  York,  Chicago  and 
Philadelphia.  One-fourth  of  all 
the  people  of  this  great  country 
live  in  sixty-eight  cities  with 
populations  of  over  one  hundred 
thousand.  The  1920  census,  for 
the  first  time  in  this  nation's 
history,  brought  out  the  startling 
fact  that  more  than  half,  54,- 
304,603,  to  be  exact,  of  the  Amer- 
ican people  live  in  cities  of  2,500 
and  upwards. 

Reasons  for  Growth  of  Cities 

This  growth  has  its  roots  in 
many  causes.  The  enormous  de- 
velopment of  factories,  the  vast 
extension  of  commerce,  the  amaz- 
ing and  rapid  increase  in  trans- 
portation facilities — the  railroad, 
the  trolley,  the  motor  truck,  and 
the  automobile — have  all  con- 
tributed. Modern  agricultural 
machinery  has  made  it  possible 
for  a  relatively  smaller  country 
population  to  supply  with  food 
a  relatively  larger  city  popula- 
tion. There  has  been  a  steady 
drift  of  people  from  the  country 
districts  to  the  city  within  the 
last  few  decades.  Immigrants,  es- 
pecially those  who  have  come 
since  1880,  have,  to  a  large  extent, 
remained  in  the  cities  and  not 
gone  on  the  farms.  The  result 
of  these  many  causes  has  been  to 
citify  rapidly  the  United  States. 

This  change,  there  is  no  doubt, 
is  going  to  have  many  effects  on 
American  thought,  social  and 
economic  life,  and  political  insti- 
tutions. Great  municipalities 
have  always  been  the  nerve  and 
the  storm  centers  of  civilization. 
The  city  dweller,  in  time,  if  this 
tendency  from  country  to  city 
continues,  will  gain  political  con- 
trol. Municipal  government, 
since  over  one-half  of  the  Amer- 
ican people  now  live  in  cities, 
must  be  carefully  studied. 


THE     AMERICAN     CITY 


197 


City  Government  Better 

Until  very  recently,  American 
cities  have  had  a  bad  record  for 
corruption,  inefficiency,  and 
waste.  James  Bryce,  one  of  the 
keenest  critics  of  our  country, 
some  years  ago  said  that  the 
government  of  cities  is  the  one 
conspicuous  failure  of  the  United 
States. 

But  this  has  changed. 
American  cities,  since  1900, 
have  made  tremendous  progress 
in  good  government.  Although 
the  spoils  system  has  not  entirely 
gone,  the  general  introduction 
of  civil  service  standards  has 
greatly  reduced  its  use.  Vot- 
ers have  become  more  public 
spirited  and  much  better  in- 
formed. American  cities  have 
now  begun  to  think  in  terms  of 
progress. 

The  idea  that  a  city  is  a  busi- 
ness organization  that  should 
be  run  in  the  interests  of  its 
stockholders — the  citizens — has 
made  much  headway.  The  pass- 
words to  good  city  government 
have  now  become  efficiency,  re- 
sponsibility, service,  streets, 
sewers,  transportation,  parks, 
playgrounds,  schools,  health, 
safety,  charities — these  are  the 
business  and  social  problems  of 
the  city,  and  upon  their  efficient 
handling  city  administrations 
must  be  judged. 

What  Is  a  City? 

So  far,  we  have  not  defined  a 
city.  "A  city  is  a  municipal  cor- 
poration possessing  power  to  sue 
and  be  sued,  to  acquire,  hold,  and 
dispose  of  property,  to  enact 
ordinances,  to  raise  money  by 
taxation,  and  to  exercise  the 
right  of  eminent  domain." 

This  definition  sounds  very 
difficult,  but  it  is  not.      It  sim- 


A  city  that  is  built  near  water  will  add  to  its  pop- 
ulation the  many  thousands  who  work  on  the  docks 
and  ships.  This  is  a  picture  of  A  SECTION  OF  PHIL- 
ADELPHIA'S GREAT  WATER  FRONT.    The  wonder- 


ful LABOR  SAVING  MACHINES  THAT  THE 
FARIVIERS  NOW  USE  to  prepare  the  soil,  plant, 
cultivate,  gather  and  harvest  the  crops,  add  to  the 
growth   of  cities,  for  one   man   with   such   improved 


machinery  can  now  do  the  work  of  many.  IMMI- 
GRATION IS  ANOTHER  REASON  FOR  THE 
GROWTH  OF  CITIES.  Over  eighty  out  of  every 
hundred  immigrants  who  come  to  this  country  settle 
in  the  cities. 


198 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


A  city  is  a  business  corporation.  It  can  sue  you  or 
you  can  sue  It.  Sliouid  you  receive  an  injury  by  fall- 
ing into  a  hole  in  the  street  or  sidewalk  over  which 
workers  employed  by  the  city  had  neglected  to  place 
a  flag  by  day  or  a  lantern  by  night,  YOU  COULD 
SUE  THE  CITY.     If  you  do  not  pay  your  taxes,  the 


city  can   sue   you.      A   city   can   make   its  own   laws. 
THESE  LAWS  ARE  CALLED  CITY  ORDINANCES. 


ply  states  that  a  city  is  a  busi- 
ness corporation  which  can  sue 
you,  or  which  you  can  sue;  and 
just  like  other  corporations,  it 
can  buy  and  sell  property.  It  can 
make  its  own  laws  covering  local 
matters,  which,  as  has  already 
been  explained  in  Chapter  3,  are 
called  ordinances.  A  city  can  tax 
you,  and  it  also  can  take  your 
property  for  public  purposes,  for 
which,  of  course,  it  must  pay. 

The  Authority  of  the  State 

All  cities  are,  legally,  the  cre- 
ations and  the  agents  of  state 
governments.  Cities  are  abso- 
lutely under  state  legislative 
control,  except  where  that  con- 
trol is  limited  by  a  state  con- 
stitution. The  authority  which 
any  city  has  to  carry  on  its  work 
conies  from  a  state. 

City  Charters 

The  constitution  of  a  munici- 
pality is  its  charter.  It  is  granted 
to  a  city  by  the  state  legislature 
or  under  state  law.  A  charter  is 
the  foundation  of  city  govern- 
ment. It  tells  what  officials  a 
city  may  have,  how  they  must  be 
chosen,  and  what  they  may  do. 

Home  Rule 

Control  by  the  state  legisla- 
ture has  led  to  many  conflicts 
over  the  right  of  a  city  to  run 
its  own  affairs  without  constant 
interference  on  the  part  of  a 
state.  Who  makes  the  city 
charter?  What  is  to  be  put  into 
'a  city  charter?  How  may  the 
charter  be  changed?  These  are 
vital  questions  which  every  state 
in  the  Union  is  attempting  to 
answer. 

State  legislatures  have  often 
abused  their  power  over  cities. 
This  control  at  times  has  greatly 
slowed   up   municipal   progress; 


THE     AMERICAN     CITY 


199 


and  state  or  even  federal  politics, 
not  the  good  of  the  city,  in  many 
cases  have  prevailed.  Cities  are 
in  good  part  business  corpora- 
tions with  certain  govern- 
mental functions.  Their  citizens 
are  to  be  considered  the  stock- 
holders who  mostly  pay  the  bills. 
It  is  only  fair  and  just  that  they 
control,  as  far  as  it  is  wise, 
the  purse  strings  of  their  city 
government,  and  decide  for 
themselves  the  kind  of  city  gov- 
ernment under  which  they  wish 
to  live.  Cities  should  have  as 
much  home  rule  as  it  is  practi- 
cable to  give  them. 

State  Authority  Necessary 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  an- 
other side  to  the  question  of 
home  rule.  No  city  can  live  unto 
itself.  Cities  deal  with  many 
matters  that  are  of  wider  concern 
than  the  municipality  itself. 
Smallpox,  for  example,  breaks 
out.  Immediately  the  districts 
around  the  city,  the  state,  even 
the  Nation,  have  a  concern  in  the 
manner  in  which  the  epidemic  is 
handled,  for  smallpox  spreads 
rapidly  and  if  not  quickly 
checked  might  affect  the  whole 
country. 

No  city  can  dispose  of  its  sew- 
age in  such  a  manner  as  to  en- 
danger the  health  of  another 
city.  A  city  located  at  the^head 
of  a  stream  should  not  be  allowed 
to  dump  its  sewage  into  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  scatter  dis- 
ease to  the  cities  and  towns  situ- 
ated on  the  river  below  it. 

New  York  City  and  Los  An- 
geles go  back  miles  into  the 
mountains  for  their  water  sup- 
ply. But  other  cities  also  are 
looking  for  water  and  must  have 
similar  privileges.  The  state,  a 
higher  authority,  is  the  judge. 


A  city  can  condemn  property  and,  at  a  fair  price, 
secure  it  and  use  it  for  whatever  purpose  it  may 
wish.  An  official  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  is  here 
shown  beginning  the  work  of  TEARING  DOWN 
PART  OF  A  SLUM  DISTRICT  which  that  city 
turned  into  a  beautiful  park.     This  is  known  as  the 


ST.  PAUL  CITY  I 


right  of  "eminent  domain."  The  cities  of 
Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  have  authority  over 
THE  TERRITORY  THAT  IS  SHADED  on  this  map. 


The  home  of  the  government  of  a  city  is  usually 
called  the  city  hall.  SAN  FRANCISCO  HAS  ONE 
OF  THE  MOST  BEAUTIFUL  CITY  HALLS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES, 


200 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


The  government  of  a  city  is  under  the  government 
of  the  state  in  which  the  city  is  located.  This  is 
right.  A  city  bordering  on  THE  MISSISSIPPI 
RIVER,  or  on  one  of  its  tributaries  (see  illustration), 
could  not,  for  example,  do  what  it  wished  with  the 
river.  In  this  case,  each  city  (note  dots)  on  this 
mighty  waterway  must  consider  the  interests  of  all 
the    other    cities,    hence,    the    need    of    state,    even 


national  supervision.  Another  example:  Each  day 
A  FREIGHT  TRAIN  LOADED  WITH  FREIGHT 
LEAVES  CHICAGO  TO  THE  POINTS  INDICATED 
ON  THIS  MAP.  Here,  again,  millions  of  people  who 
do  not  live  in  Chicago  are  interested  in  the  trans- 
portation facilities  of  this  great  city.  Here,  again,  the 
state  and  nation   must  step  in.     So   important  to  a 


city  is  this  one  item  of  transportation,  alone,  that 
many  c'ties  are  building  their  own  docks.  THE 
MUNICIPAL  DOCKS  OF  GALVESTON,  TEXAS, 
are  shown. 


Financial  waste  and  extrava- 
gance in  a  great  city  may  have  a 
disastrous  effect  on  other  cities 
and  on  the  state  in  which  it  is 
situated.  Transportation  facili- 
ties and  their  proper  develop- 
ment are  of  as  much  concern  to 
the  truck  farmers  who  desire  to 
ship  their  vegetables  to  a  neigh- 
boring city  as  they  are  to  the 
city  itself. 

The  development  of  great  com- 
mercial centers,  San  Francisco, 
Chicago,  New  York,  and  Buffalo, 
is  the  concern  of  the  whole  na- 
tion, as  well  as  of  the  citizens 
who  live  in  those  great  cities. 
New  York,  for  example,  is  the 
spout  through  which  a  large 
part  of  the  whole  trade  of  Amer- 
ica must  pass.  New  York  is  a 
national  center,  made  what  it  is 
because  a  large  portion  of  the 
gigantic  wealth  of  the  great 
United  States  goes  through  New 
York  to  its  world  destination. 
The  world's  products,  in  return 
are  distributed  from  it,  fan- 
shape-wise,  to  every  hamlet  and 
city  in  the  United  States.  If 
high  dock  charges  and  inade- 
quate shipping  facilities  are  al- 
lowed to  exist  in  New  York,  they 
have  important  evil  results  not 
only  to  the  New  Yorker,  but  to 
the  State,  to  the  Nation  and  to 
the  World! 

The  proper  relationships  that 
should  exist  between  city  and 
state  must  be  fixed  on  the  basis 
of  common  sense  and  expediency 
which  takes  into  consideration 
facts  like  these.  Above  all,  the 
problem  should  not  become 
merely  a  question  of  petty  or 
party  politics. 

Kinds  of  City  Government 

Each  State,  as  these  facts  indi- 
cate, is  its  own  municipal  labo- 


THE    A.M  ERlCAN     CITY 


20i 


ratory.  Each  city  in  America,  at 
least  in.  details,  differs  from 
other  American  cities.  For  these 
reasons,  n  o  statement  which 
can  be  made  about  American 
municipalities  in  general  will  ex- 
actly describe  the  government  of 
any  particular  American  city. 

The  government  of  American 
cities  falls  into  three  general 
types.  Everyone  should  have 
a  working  knowledge  of  them, 
their  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages. Many  cities  have,  within 
recent  years,  changed  their  city 
governments  entirely.  Many 
more  will  do  so  within  the  next 
few  years.  As  such  changes  are 
usually  referred  to  the  municipal 
electorate,  every  voter  should 
have  a  clear  idea  of  what  he  is 
asked  to  decide. 

Mayor-Council  Type 

The  Mayor-Council  type  of 
city  government  is  the  oldest. 
In  this  type  the  mayor  is  the 
chief  executive  and  is  aided  by 
heads  of  departments  such  as  the 
commissioners  of  police,  fire, 
health,  charities,  correction  and 
recreation,  usually  appointed  by 
him.  He  carries  out  the  ordi- 
nances passed  by  the  city  coun- 
cil or  the  board  of  aldermen 
which  is  the  legislative  part  of 
the  city  machinery. 

This  council,  or  board,  is 
usually  elected  on  a  ward  basis; 
that  is,  a  councillor  or  an  alder- 
man is  elected  from  and  repre- 
sents a  district  in  the  city  which 
is  called  a  ward.  The  Mayor- 
Council  type  is  the  form  of  city 
government  still  generally  used 
throughout  the  United  States. 

Power  in  this  type  of  govern- 
ment has  been  gradually  shifted 
from  the  city  council  or  the 
board  of  aldermen  to  the  mayor. 


The  greater  number  of  cities  In  the  United  States 
aregoverned  by  THE  MAYOR-COUNCIL  TYPE  OF 
GOVERNMENT.  This  chart  illustrates  this  form 
of  government.  The  people  elect  the  Mayor  and  the 
members  of  the  Council.  The  Mayor  is  the  chief 
executive  and  appoints  heads  of  departments.  The 
Mayor  also  carries  out  the  ordinances  passed  by  the 
City  Council  or  the  Board  of  Aldermen. 

Power  in  the  Mayor-Council  Type  of  City  Govern- 
ment has  been  gradually  ishifted  from  the  City 
Council  or  the  Board  of  Aldermen  to  the  Mayor.  A 
Mayor  who  successfully  governs  a  great  city  is  often 
in   line  for  the  Governorship   of   his   State. 


202 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


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Many  cities  have  adopted  THE  COMMISSION 
FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT.  The  chart  illustrates 
this  new  plan  of  city  government.  The  Commission 
puts  the  City  Council  and  the  Mayor  in  one  body 
usually  composed  of  five  men.  These  five  men  pass 
all  ordinances,  make  all  appropriations,  supervise 
and  carry  on  the  entire  work  of  the  city.  By  this 
plan,  the  Mayor  becomes  the  nominal  head  and  rep- 
resents the  city  when  important  functions  occur. 

Many  advantages  are  claimed  for  the  Commission 
Form  of  Government  by  the  cities  which  have  adopted 
it.  So  far,  however,  only  a  few  of  the  larger  cities 
have  adopted  the  plan;  but  among  medium  sized 
cities,  the  plan  has  spread  very  rapidly. 


who  is  the  outstanding  and  im- 
portant figure. 

The  Commission  Form 

New  standards  have  brought 
striking  reforms.  The  most 
important  has  been  the  adoption 
of  the  Commission  form  of  city 
government,  first  tried  out  by 
Galveston  in  1901.  This  city, 
at  the  time,  had  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  worst  gov- 
erned in  America.  There  is  an 
old  saying,  "It  is  an  ill  wind  that 
blows  nobody  good."  The  tidal 
wave  and  great  storm  that  struck 
Galveston  in  1900  was  such  an  ill 
wind.  It  did  great  damage  and 
nearly  wiped  out  the  city,  but  it 
gave,  in  return,  a  new  type  of 
government  which  has  been  cop- 
ied in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States. 

In  the  reconstruction  that  fol- 
lowed the  destruction  of  the  city, 
the  old  city  government  was 
swept  away,  root  and  branch.  A 
commission  of  business  men  car- 
ried on  the  city  government  as  a 
temporary  matter.  Soon,  the 
great  merits  of  this  centralized, 
responsible  type  of  government 
were  seen.  Galveston  petitioned 
the  Texas  State  Legislature  to 
be  allowed  to  adopt  the  plan 
permanently.  She  w&s  allowed 
to  do  so.  Soon,  the  State  Legis- 
lature allowed  other  cities  of  the 
State  to  take  up  the  same  system. 
Iowa  followed  Texas.  Today  the 
Commission  plan  has  so  spread 
that  the  cities  using  it  can  be 
counted  by  the  hundreds. 

How  It  Works 

The  Commission  plan  puts  the 
powers  and  duties  of  the  city 
council  and  the  mayor,  the  legis- 
lature and  the  executive,  into  the 
hands  of  one  body.     This  body 


THE     AMERICAN     CITY 


203 


usually  consists  o£  Bve  men,  al- 
though the  number  may  vary. 
These  hve  men  pass  all  ordin- 
ances, make  all  appropriations, 
supervise  and  carry  on  the  en- 
tire work  of  the  city.  The  work 
of  running  the  city  is  distributed 
among  the  members  of  the  com- 
mission according  to  their  own 
wishes.  One  commissioner  may 
look  after  public  affairs,  another, 
after  accounts  and  finance,  an- 
other, after  public  safety.  One 
may  look  after  streets  and  public 
improvements,  and  the  last  after 
health  and  charities. 

The  scheme  practically  abol- 
ishes the  office  of  mayor  as  it  is 
found  in  the  Mayor-Council 
type.  A  mayor  is  usually 
elected,  however,  so  that  the  city 
may  have  a  nominal  head  to 
represent  it  upon  important 
occasions.  He  sits  as  a  member 
and  formal  chairman  of  the  com- 
mission but  has  no  greater  pow- 
ers than  the  other  members. 

Each  commissioner  is  held  re- 
sponsible for  the  efficient  run- 
ning of  his  own  department. 
The  entire  commission  is  held 
responsible  for  the  city  govern- 
ment as  a  whole. 

Advantages 

Many  advantages  are  claimed 
for  the  Commission  form  of  gov- 
ernment by  the  cities  which  have 
adopted  it.  In  the  first  place,  it 
puts  responsibility  in  the  hands 
of  a  small  group  of  men.  The 
voters  thus  know  those  whom 
they  should  blame  for  shortcom- 
ings. Better  men,  experience 
seems  to  show,  are  attracted  to 
public  office  by  the  increased  au- 
thority and  responsibility  that 
the  Commission  form  gives  to 
them.  Moreover,  the  govern- 
mental     structure      is      greatly 


There  is  yet  another  plan  of  city  government.  This 
is  called  THE  CITY  MANAGER  PLAN.  It  is,  as 
the  chart  shows,  like  the  Commission  plan  with  the 
addition   of   a   City    Manager. 

This  Manager  can  be  compared  to  the  general 
manager  of  a  business  corporation  or  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  a  factory.  The  City  Manager  is  hired  by 
the  Commission  and  is  chosen  because  of  his  special 
fitness  for  the  work.  He  is  a  trained  public  official 
whose  job  it  is  to  take  charge  of  a  city  government. 
It  is  a  new  profession.  Some  universities  even  are 
training  men  for  this  particular  line  of  service.  The 
City  Manager  Plan  is  now  used  in  over  200  cities  in 
America,  but,  like  the  Commission  Form  of  Govern- 
ment, only  medium  sized  cities  have  as  yet  adopted  it. 


204 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


Every  city  carries  on  five  great  groups  of  ser- 
vices: In  the  first  place  a  city  protects  life  and 
property.  One  of  the  most  important  departments 
of  a  city  is  THE  POLICE  DEPARTMENT.  Many 
cities  send  their  police  in  cars  to  patrol  the  sub- 
burban    districts.     The   second    public   safety .  depart- 


ment is  THE  FIRE  DEPARTMENT,    If  a  city  borders 
a   river   it   maintains   a  fleet   of   powerful    fire   boats. 


Another  great  group  of  services  that  a  city  gives 
comes  under  the  general  name  of  "public  works." 
Building  streets  and  sidewalks  and  keeping  them  in 
repair  is  work  that  belongs  to  this  department. 


simplified  and  business  is 
more  efficiently  carried  on. 
There  is  less  friction  between 
antagonistic  parts  of  the  govern- 
ment. Less  time  is  lost  in  use- 
less discussion,  so  often  the  bad 
habit  of  a  city  council.  It  seems 
to  be  a  more  business-like  ar- 
rangement for  the  kind  of  work 
that  cities  have  to  do. 

So  far,  however,  only  a  few  of 
the  large  cities  have  adopted  the 
plan.  They  still  retain  the 
Mayor-Council  type  of  govern- 
ment, but  among  smaller  cities, 
especially  the  medium  sized  cit- 
ies, the  plan  has  spread  rapidly. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa,  and  other 
cities,  have  combined  more  radi- 
cal measures  with  the  Commis- 
sion plan,  such  as  the  initiative, 
the  referendum  and  the  recall. 
Two  of  the  most  interesting 
measures  adopted  by  these,  and 
other  cities,  are  the  doing  away 
with  the  party  emblems  on  the 
ballots  used  in  municipal  elec- 
tions, and  the  use  o/  an  open, 
non-partisan  primary  in  making 
nominations  for  office. 

City  Manager 

Many  cities  have  added  an- 
other feature  to  the  Commission 
— the  city  manager.  Cities  which 
have  adopted  this  plan  are  usu- 
ally said  to  have  the  City  Man- 
ager type  of  government  al- 
though it  is  more  correct  to  say 
the  Commission  City-Manager 
plan. 

The  city  manager  is  an  expert 
superintendent  of  city  affairs. 
He  can  be  compared  to  the  gen- 
eral manager  of  a  business  cor- 
poration, or  to  the  superintend- 
ent of  a  factory.  He  is  generally 
appointed  for  an  indefinite  time 
by  the  commissioners,  and  is  re- 
sponsible to,  and  removable  by 


THE     AMERICAN     CITY 


205 


them.  He  is  usually  paid  a  good 
salary. 

The  city  manager  does  away 
with  one  of  the  difficulties  which 
has  been  brought  out  by  experi- 
ence with  the  Commission  form 
of  government.  The  commis- 
sioners are  not  usually  experts 
in  any  one  special  line  of  munici- 
pal administration. 

When  a  commissioner  takes 
charge  of  the  police  department, 
or  of  health,  or  of  charities,  he 
is  very  often  not  fitted  to  do  the 
work.  The  city  manager,  how- 
ever, is  a  trained  public  official, 
whose  job  it  is  to  take  charge 
of  a  city  government  and  its  ac- 
tivities. It  is  a  new  profession. 
Some  universities,  even,  are 
training  men  for  this  particular 
line  of  service.  A  city  manager 
is  now  used  in  over  200  cities  in 
America,  but,  like  the  Commis- 
sion plan  of  government,  this 
form  has  made  rapid  headway 
only  in  the  smaller  cities. 

Services  Given 

We  have  described  the  impor- 
tance, the  growth  of  the  Ameri- 
can city,  and  its  government. 
Only  indirectly  has  anything 
been  said  about  what  it  does. 
These  tasks  are  just  as  impor- 
tant as  the  form  of  the  govern- 
ment of  a  city,  and  both  are 
closely  related.  The  machinery 
of  government  is  no  more  than 
a  means  to  an  end.  That  end  is 
service  to  the  citizen. 

It  is  confusing  to  attempt  to 
catalog  these  services,  they  are 
so  many.  It  is  helpful,  however, 
to  boil  them  down  to  live  great 
groups  of  services  which  every 
city  carries  on. 

Public  Safety  Departments 

In  the  first  place,  a  city  pro- 
tects life  and  property.  Here  are 


The  city,  in  the  next  place,  does  many  things  for 
the  welfare  of  its  citizens.  It  maintains  city  hospitals, 
and  in  the  larger  cities  "hospitals  on  wheels"  with 
doctors  and  nurses  go  to  the  homes  of  the  people  in 
distress.    The  poor  are  also  looked  after  by  the  city. 


CITY  CHARITIES  AND  LODGING  HOUSES  are 
maintained  for  the  homeless.  The  fourth  great  task 
of  the  city  is  Education.  It  is  interesting  to  note  how 
fully  the  American  Public  School  system  is  developed 


in  the  cities  and  towns  of  our  newly  acquired  Terri- 
tories. This  is  a  picture  of  Hawaiian  children  enter- 
ing a  public  school  in  Honolulu. 


206 


WE      AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Cities,  in  many  cases  by  state  permission  and 
authorization,  liave  their  own  courts.  This  picture 
shows  the  WEST  SIDE  COURT,  NEW  YORK  CITY, 
said  to  be  the  busiest  magistrate's  court  in  the  United 
States.  Here  may  be  seen  the  judge,  the  prosecuting 
attorney  who  is  reading  the  warrant,  the  detectives, 
clerk  of  the  court,  etc.  The  prisoner  is  behind  the 
policeman  and  detective  at  the  left. 


found  those  great  public  safety 
departments,  such  as  police,  Bre, 
corrections  and  health. 

Public  Works 

In  the  second  place,  a  munici- 
pality looks  after  many  public 
works,  such  as  the  making  of 
streets,  erecting  public  build- 
ings, laying  sewers  and  the  like. 

Welfare  Departments 

A  city,  in  the  third  place,  does 
many  things  for  the  personal 
welfare  of  its  citizens.  All  cities 
make  provisions  for  the  relief  of 
the  poor,  the  sheltering  of  the 
homeless,  the  care  of  the  sick, 
homes  for  the  old,  and  other  like 
activities. 

Education — Finance 

The  fourth  great  task — educa- 
tion— is  apparent  to  all.  The 
fifth  and  last,  finance,  is  ordinar- 
ily given  little  attention  by  the 
citizen  except  when  he  is  pre- 
sented with  his  tax  bill.  Indi- 
vidual cities  spend  millions — 
hundreds  of  millions — of  dol- 
lars. The  budgets  of  New  York, 
Philadelphia  and  Chicago  are 
greater  than  the  entire  expendi- 
tures of  some  independent  na- 
tions. Good  bookkeeping,  it  is 
often  and  truly  said,  is  the  first 
essential  to  the  success  of  any 
business.  Sound  accounting  is 
just  as  important  to  a  city. 

Citizen's  Responsibility    Great 

This  multitude  of  services,  the 
vast  army  of  civil  servants 
needed  to  carry  them  on,  and  the 
very  rapidity  of  growth  of  Amer- 
ican cities,  place  a  heavy  re- 
sponsibility on  the  municipal 
citizens,  and  those  whom  they 
elect  to  office.  Above  all,  every 
voter  should  have  a  clear  ide?  of 
the  government  of  his  city,  its 
form  and  its  functions. 


THE     AMERICAN     CITY 


207 


Many  of  the  present  problems,  the 
defects  which  we  are  trying  to  do  away 
with  today,  can  be  traced  to  a  lack  of 
vision  on  the  part  of  those  responsible. 
People — city  administrators — have  not 
looked  far  enough  ahead.  They  have 
not  thought  of  their  duty  in  terms  of 
progress.  The  consequence  has  been 
that  most  cities  in  the  United  States  in 
the  past  have  grown  up  much  like 
Topsy,  with  little  care  and  without 
much  planning  for  the  future. 

The  location  of  future  public  build- 
ings, transportation,  needs  of  an  increas- 
ing population,  automobile  and  street 
traffic,  adequate  planning  for  sewage 
disposal,  generous  park  and  playground 
space — these  and  many  other  needs 
should  be  planned  far  ahead.  Otherwise, 
millions  of  dollars  will  later  have  to  be 
spent  for  improvements  and  advantages 


which  would  only  cost  a  small  fraction 
if  arranged  for  beforehand. 

Washington,  the  Capital  of  America, 
with  its  convenient  arrangement,  its 
broad  streets  and  its  excellent  and  well 
planned  locations  of  public  buildings,  is 
a  fine  example  of  city  planning.  Cleve- 
land, in  this  respect,  is  looking  far  ahead, 
as  are  also  the  cities  of  Toledo,  Minne- 
apolis, San  Francisco,  Chicago,  New 
York,  and  many  others. 

As  a  citizen,  think  of  the  future  of  the 
city  in  which  you  live.  It  is  going  to 
grow.  Insist  that  your  agents,  the  city 
officials,  have  a  plan  which  will  provide 
for  future  needs.  Do  everything  pos- 
sible on  your  own  part  to  make  your  city 
beautiful,  orderly,  convenient.  Never 
miss  an  opportunity  to  cast  your  vote 
for  good  city  government! 


"WE  WILL  NEVER  BRING  DISGRACE  TO  THIS,  OUR  CITY,  BY 
ANY  ACT  OF  DISHONESTY  OR  COWARDICE;  WE  WILL  FIGHT  FOR 
THE  IDEALS  AND  SACRED  THINGS  OF  THE  CITY,  BOTH  ALONE  AND 
WITH  MANY.  WE  WILL  REVERE  AND  OBEY  THE  CITY'S  LAWS  AND 
DO  OUR  BEST  TO  INCITE  A  LIKE  RESPECT  AND  REVERENCE  TO 
THOSE  ABOVE  US  WHO  ARE  PRONE  TO  ANNUL  OR  SET  THEM  AT 
NAUGHT.  WE  WILL  STRIVE  UNCEASINGLY  TO  QUICKEN  THE 
PUBLIC'S  SENSE  OF  CIVIC  DUTY,  THUS,  IN  ALL  THESE  WAYS,  WE 
WILL  MAKE  THIS  OUR  BELOVED  CITY  NOT  LESS,  BUT  GREATER, 
BETTER,  AND  MORE  BEAUTIFUL  THAN  IT  WAS   BEFORE  US."— TAe 

Oath  Taken  by  the  Boys  of  Old  Athens. 

•i-     4?     4' 

"  Cities,  indeed,  have  been  the  cradles  of  human  liberty." — Guthrie. 

•4'     4?     4? 
"  A  city   is  well   governed  when   the  people  obey  the  magistrates  and  the 
magistrates  the  law." — Solon. 

•h      "h      "h 

"  When  a  man  assumes  a  public  trust,  he  should  consider  himself  as  public 

property." — Jefferson. 

4"     •!•     4" 

"  In  order  to  succeed,  we  need  leaders  who  can  kindle  the  people  with  the 
fire  from  their  own  burning  souls." — Roosevelt. 

"h      "h      "Ir 

"  The  very  essence  of  a  free  government  consists  in  considering  offices  as 
public  trusts,  bestowed  for  the  good  of  the  country,  not  for  the  benefit  of  an  in- 
dividual or  a  party." — Andrew  Jackson. 


©The  American  Viewpoint  Society 


Drawing  by  Hanson  Booth 


AN  IMPORTANT  TASK  FOR  THE  SCHOOLS 

The    American    electorate    must   be   prepared    to   meet   its   international    problems 
wisely.    ,    .    .     The  schools  must  bear  most  of  this  bwrclen  of  preparation. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


America — A  World  Nation 


The  Spanish-American  War   Brought  to  Us  the  Problem  of  Governing 
Territories  Peopled  by  Races  Alien  in  Speech  and  Customs 


a 


ONE  OF  THE  MOST  IMPOR- 
TANT PROVISIONS  in  the 
National  Constitution  has  still  to 
be  discussed.  This  clause  reads:  "Con- 
gress shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and 
make  all  needful  rules  and  regulations 
respecting  the  territory  or  other  prop- 
erty of  the  United  States." 

Under  this  wise  provision,  the  rapid 
territorial  e  x  p  a  n- 
sion  of  the  United 
States  has  taken 
place.  It  has  en- 
a  b  1  e  d  America  to 
grow  from  thirteen 
original  states 
straggling  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  to 
a  gigantic  nation  ex- 
tending from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pa- 
cific, from  the  Can- 
adian border  to  the 
Rio  Grande,  and 
reaching  out  to 
many  distant  pos- 
sessions —  Alaska, 
Hawaii,  the  Philip- 
pines, the  Panama 
Canal  Zone,  Porto 
Rico,  American 
Samoa,  Guam,  and 
the   Virgin  Islands. 

Government  of  Territories 

The  Spanish-American  War,  in  1898, 
suddenly  brought  the  United  States  face 
to  face  with  the  problem  of  governing 
territorial  possessions  peopled  by  races 
alien  to  us  in  speech  and  customs  and 
unfamiliar  with  American  institutions. 
The  war  closed  with  the  American  flag 
flying  over  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico 
and  Guam.  The  annexation  of  Hawaii, 
which  also  took  place  in  1898;  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  in 


The 
Monroe   Doctrine 


***npHE  American 
Continents-*** 
are  henceforth  not  to  be 
considered  as  subjects 
for  future  colonization  by 
any  European  Pow- 
ers *  *  *  *  therefore,  **  *  we 
(The  United  States) 
should  consider  any  at- 
tempt on  their  part  to 
extend  their  system  to 
any  portion  of  this  hem- 
isphere as  dangerous  to 
our  peace  and  safety." 


1904,  and  of  the  Virgin  Islands  in  1917, 
gave  this  nation  many  new  perplexing 
questions  of  colonial  administration  to 
solve.  Congress,  by  virtue  of  its  author- 
ity under  the  constitutional  provision 
just  quoted,  has  met  these  problems  by 
the  passage  of  a  series  of  "  organic  acts  " 
which  provide  for  the  government  of 
these  territories  and  dependencies. 
These  acts  are  the 
fundamental  laws, 
the  constitutions,  so 
to  speak,  of  the  in- 
sular possessions  of 
the  United  States. 


The  Hawaiian 
Islands 

Congress  e  s  t  a  b- 
lished  a  territorial 
government  for 
these  mid-Pacific 
islands  in  1900.  Un- 
der the  provisions 
of  this  act,  the  Fed- 
eral Government  at 
Washington  o  p  e  r- 
ates  directly  such 
services  as  the  post 
office,  the  collection 
of  customs,  coinage, 
and  the  regulation 
of  national  banking; 
while  all  local  matters  are  looked  after 
by  the  local  Hawaiian  government. 

This  local  government  consists  of  a 
Governor  appointed  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States  with  the  consent  of 
the  United  States  Senate,  and  a  Terri- 
torial Legislature  made  up  of  two 
houses,  a  Senate  with  fifteen  members, 
and  a  House  of  Representatives  with 
thirty  members.  Hawaii  also  has  the 
right  to  send  one  delegate  to  the  Na- 


209 


210 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


During  the  Spanish-American  War,  1898,  the 
American  Flag  was  raised  in  the  Islands  of  the 
Pacific.  THE  HERO  OF  THIS  WAR  WAS  AD- 
iVIIRAL  DEWEY,  who,  upon  his  return,  received  the 
thanks  of  Congress  and  President  McKinley,  and  also 
the   applause   of  the   citizens  of  the  whole   country. 


»'»»»■- 


In  1898,  the  United  States  annexed  Hawaii  and  organ- 
ized these  Islands  into  a  territory  in  1900.  The 
approach  to  Honolulu,  the  capital  city,  is  strongly 
fortified.  The  government  FORTIFICATIONS  ARE 
BUILT   ON    THE   TOP   OF   A   GREAT    MOUNTAIN. 


Fishing  is  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  natives  of 
these  Islands.  Honolulu  HAS  MANY  GREAT  FISH 
MARKETS. 


tional  House  of  Representatives 
at  Washington.  This  delegate, 
however,  cannot  vote  in  that 
body.  All  citizens  of  these 
islands  at  the  time  of  annexation 
in  1898,  became  citizens  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Philippine  Islands 

This  very  important  group  of 
islands,  our  outpost  in  the  Far 
East,  is  now  governed  under  a 
Congressional  Act  passed  in 
1916.  The  Philippine  Legisla- 
ture, which  looks  after  local  mat- 
ters, consists  of  two  houses,  a 
Senate  of  twenty-four  members 
and  a  House  of  Representatives 
of  ninety  members.  This  legisla- 
ture sends  two  resident  commis- 
sioners to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States, 
but,  as  in  the  case  of  Hawaii, 
these  delegates  have  not  the 
right  to  vote. 

The  executive  head  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  is  a  Gov- 
ernor-General appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States 
with  the  consent  of  the  United 
States  Senate.  He  has  the  right 
to  veto  bills  passed  by  the  local 
Filipino  Congress.  Vetoed  bills 
cannot  be  passed  over  the  Gov- 
ernor-General's head  without  the 
consent  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  This  provision 
gives  the  President  a  check  on 
all  Filipino  legislation. 

Fledge  of  Independence 

The  Act  of  1916  contains  a 
pledge  to  give  the  Philippines 
Independence  when  the  right 
time  comes.  Independence  nat- 
urally depends  upon  the  ability 
shown  by  the  Filipinos  to  gov- 
ern themselves,  on  the  educa- 
tional progress  which  they  make, 
and   on   the   international   situa- 


AMERICA  — A     WORLD     NATION 


211 


tion  as  it  affects  the  strategic 
importance  of  these  islands. 

The  Filipinos  are  not  citizens 
of  the  United  States  as  are  the 
people  of  Hawaii  and  Alaska. 
The  provisions  of  the  National 
Constitution  of  the  United 
States  have  not  been  extended 
to  them.  Internationally,  how- 
ever, the  American  Government 
will  protect  them  and  see  that 
their  rights  abroad  are  respected 
to  the  utmost. 

In  this  respect  a  Filipino  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  is  an 
American  citizen.  He  is,  how- 
ever, generally  called  a  "  na- 
tional"  of  the  United  States, 
to  distinguish  him  from  a  full- 
fledged  citizen. 

Porto  Rico 

Porto  Rico  was  acquired  by 
the  United  States  in  1898  as  the 
result  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 
which  terminated  the  Spanish- 
American  War. 

The  government  of  this  West 
Indian  island  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  Philippines.  A  Gov- 
ernor-General is  appointed  in  the 
same  manner  and  with  the  same 
powers.  With  the  assistance  of 
an  Advisory  Executive  Council  oi 
six  members,  he  is  at  the  head  of 
the  island's  administration.  The 
Legislature  consists  of  two  hous- 
es, a  Senate  with  nineteen  mem- 
bers and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives with  thirty-nine  members. 

Porto  Rico  sends  to  the  Fed- 
eral House  of  Representatives 
one  delegate  who,  as  in  the 
other  possessions,  has  no  right 
to  vote.  In  local  affairs  Con- 
gress has  interfered  very  little 
with  Porto  Rico,  and  the  island, 
in  consequence,  has  had  a  full 
measure  of  home  rule. 


The  Philippine  Islands  were  acquired  in  1898  as  a 
result  of  the  Spanish-American  War.  They  embrace 
over  3,000  islands  and  have  a  total  area  of  150,026 
square  miles.  Their  population  is  over  9,000,000. 
MANILA  IS  THE  CHIEF  CITY,  a  view  of  which   is 


here  shown.  Before  these  islands  were  acquired  by 
the  United  States,  primitive  methods  were  employed 
in  all  industries.  The  picture  shows  NATIVES 
THRASHING  RICE  by  the  old  hand  method.     Up-to- 


date  farm  machinery  is  now  generally  used.  THE 
GROWING  OF  SUGAR  CANE  is  one  of  the  chief 
industries  of  these  islands.  This  industry  has  tripled 
In  the  last  12  years. 


212 


WE     AND      OUR     GOVERNMENT 


Porto  Rico  was  also  acquired  by  the  United  States 
as  a  result  of  the  Spanish-American  War.  San  Juan 
is  the  chief  city  of  this  island  and  its  Capi- 
tal.    A   STREET  SCENE  of  this  city  is   here  shown. 


Sugar  cane  is  grown  in  great  abundance  on  this 
island,  and  a  great  deal  of  SUGAR  IS  ANNUALLY 
SHIPPED   FROM   SAN   JUAN   to  the    United   States. 


Samoa,  Guam,  The  Virgin 

Islands,  and  Panama 

Canal  Zone 

Samoa  and  Guam  are  both 
governed  by  a  naval  officer  ap- 
pointed by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  of  the  United  States. 
These  islands  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  this  Department.  The 
Virgin  Islands  are  temporarily 
in  charge  of  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment. The  Panama  Canal  Zone 
has  a  Governor  appointed  by 
the  War  Department  to  look 
after  its  affairs. 

Alaska 

Alaska,  the  oldest  and  most 
important  of  our  possessions,  was 
purchased  from  Russia  in  1867. 
It  is  a  territory  of  the  United 
States,  controlled  by  a  Governor 
who  is  appointed  by  the  President 
and  by  an  Alaskan  legislature 
which  passes  local  laws. 

Owing  to  its  small  population 
and  to  the  vast  territory  which 
this  country  covers,  many  mat- 
ters are  looked  after  directly  by 
the  Executive  Department  in 
Washington.  Education,  for  ex- 
ample, is  under  the  direction  of 
tkp  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Alaska  sends  one  delegate,  with- 
out the  right  to  vote,  to  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

The  District  of  Columbia 

Just  a  word  should  be  said 
about  the  District  of  Columbia, 
known  to  most  of  us  as  the  City 
of  Washington.  This  territory, 
set  aside  as  the  seat  of  the 
National  Government,  is  under 
the  absolute  control  of  Congress. 
Its  affairs  are  looked  after  by  a 
commission  of  three  appointed 
by  the  President,  while  all  the 
laws  affecting  the  District,  must 


AMERICA  — A     WORLD     NATION 


213 


be  passed  by  Congress.  Per- 
manent residents  of  the  District 
have  no  vote.  The  cost  of  the 
government  of/  Washington  is 
divided,  one^mH  being  paid  by 
the  National  Government,  ttte 
other  h%lf  by  local  taxes. 

if  ^'  ' 

[Our  Territorial  Policy 

The  American  territorial  pol- 
icy has  been  based  on  the  better- 
ment and  advancement  of  its  ter- 
ritories and  possessions.  Cuba, 
for  example,  occupied  by  us  dur- 
ing the  Spanish-American  War, 
was  later  returned,  although 
America  still  extends  its  pro- 
tection to  this  island.  Every- 
thing possible  has  been  done  to 
raise  the  level  of  education  and 
of  government  in  our  posses- 
sions. In  the  Philippines  we 
have  introduced  a  complete  and 
up-to-date  school  system. 

The  form  of  government  and 
the  laws  of  the  United  States 
have  been  introduced  in  the  ter- 
ritories, and  in  most  cases  the 
rights  and  the  privileges  of  the 
United  States  Constitution  have 
been  extended  to  the  people. 
Local  government,  home  rule, 
has  been  introduced  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  The  natives  of  most 
of  these  possessions  now  have 
their  own  local  legislatures. 

A  World  Nation 

The  raising  of  the  American 
Flag  in  these  insular  possessions 
has  done  a  great  deal  to  bring 
us  into  close  contact  with  a  num- 
ber of  other  nations.  As  our 
Flag  has  crossed  the  Pacific  it 
has  brought  us  face  to  face  with 
the  great  Oriental  nations  of 
China  and  Japan.  Our  part  in 
the  World  War  brought  us  into 
immediate    contact    with    many 


The  Panama  Canal  Zone  includes  ail  the  land  for 
five  miles  on  each  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  route 
of  the  Panama  Canal.  This  is  practically  THE  ONLY 
TERRITORY  UNDER  THE  AMERICAN  FLAG 
THAT    GROWS    BANANAS.      American    Samoa   was 


acquired  by  the  United  States  in  1900  as  the  result 
of  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 
Pago  Pago  is  its  chief  city  and  the  seat  of  Govern- 
ment. The  picture  shows  A  SCENE  ON  THE 
WATER    FRONT   AT   SAMOA'S    LITTLE   CAPITAL. 


214 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


Alaska  was  bought  from  Russia  in  1867  for 
$7,200,000.  Since  that  date  it  has  produced  furs 
exceeding  in  value  $100,000,000;  minerals — gold,  cop- 
per and  silver — $425,000,000.  Its  annual  fishery 
products  yearly  exceed  in  value  $50,000,000.  But  this 
is  not  the  whole  story  of  Alaska's  wonderful  wealth 
and  opportunities.  Annually,  nearly  a  million  dollars 
worth  of  products  of  the  soil  are  produced.  THE 
ACREAGE  PLANTED  IN  WHEAT  IS  YEARLY 
INCREASING.    The  native  population  is  composed  of 


Indians  and  Eskimos.  Fishing,  hunting  and,  more 
particularly,  the  raising  of  herds  of  reindeer,  are  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  natives.  In  the  picture  will 
be  noted  A  ROW  OF  CURIOUSLY  CARVED  TOTEM 
POLES.  The  carvings  depict  animals.  These,  the 
work  of  the  natives,  have  a  religious  significance. 


Other  nations.  Today  when  we 
speak  of  the  American  foreign 
policy  we  think  of  the  whole 
world ;  whereas,  only  a  few  years 
ago  when  anyone  in  the  United 
States  spoke  of  the  American 
foreign  policy  he  thought  only 
of  our  South  American  neigh- 
bors and  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 
The  cable,  the  radio,  improved 
ocean  transportation,  the  ex- 
pansion of  foreign  trade,  news- 
papers and  press  associations 
have  all  contributed  in  bring- 
ing the  nations  of  the  world 
into  closer  contact. 

International  Problems 

It  is  not  within  the  province 
of  this  book  to  discuss  or  advo- 
cate any  particular  international 
policy.  It  is,  however,  within  its 
scope  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
in  the  future  such  questions  will 
become  more  and  more  important 
to  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  every  citizen 
will  be  called  upon  to  discuss 
foreign  affairs  and  to  place  in 
office  men  who  will  understand 
them  and  pass  intelligently  on 
them. 

The  American  electorate  must 
be  prepared  to  meet  these  inter- 
national problems  wisely  and 
with  a  true  realization  of  the 
economic,  racial  and  political 
factors  involved.  It  is  a  great 
responsibility.  It  means  that  to 
solve  such  matters  wisely  Amer- 
ica must  have  citizens  who  know 
not  only  their  own  government 
thoroughly  but  also  its  political 
and  industrial  history ;  who  know 
something  of  other  nations,  who 
have  a  grasp  of  economics  and 
some  idea  at  least  of  the  impor- 
tance of  the  great  racial  ques- 
tions which  stand  in  the  fore- 
front of  the  world's  problems. 


AMERICA  —  A     WORLD     NATION 


215 


This  is  placing  a  heavy  burden  on  the 
average  American  citizen;  but  citizen- 
ship in  the  American  democracy  in  these 
troublesome  days  means  a  heavy  respon- 
sibility. Education — Education — Edu- 
cation— must  be  the  motto  of  the  United 
States.  The  schools  naturally  must  bear 
most  of  this  burden. 

Many  think  that  the  schools  exist  to 
prepare  people  to  earn  more  money.  This 


is  important  but  only  incidental.  The 
real  job  of  the  schools  is  to  make  better, 
wiser,  more  patriotic  American  citizens. 
America — every  democracy  in  fact — 
must  be  built  on  its  schools,  since  an 
educated  and  self-controlled  electorate 
is  the  foundation  upon  which  a  RE- 
PUBLIC, above  all  other  forms  of  gov- 
ernment, rests  for  its  very  existence. 


©N.  Y.  World  Drawing  by  W.  J.  Enright 

AN     EXAMPLE     FOR     THE     WORLD 

"At  the  recent  Conference  on  the  Limitation  of  Armaments  held  at  Washington,  no  single 
aspect  of  international  relations  attracted  more  attention  than  the  unfortified  frontier  of  from 
three  to  four  thousand  miles  between  the  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  *  *  * 
Here  no  forts  threaten,  no  bombs  are  planted,  no  poison-gas  projectors  are  concealed,  no  navy 
yards  clang  with  the  making  of  war  machines,  no  canhon  lie  in  wait.  No  airplanes  search  out 
hidden  strongholds,  no  submarines  explore  the  clear  waters  of  these  lakes.  There  is  no  army 
and  no  navy;  best  of  all,  there  is  the  hundred-year  habit  that  prevents  the  people  from  feeling 
the  need  of  either  or  even  wondering  why  they  do  not  exist.  *  *  *  As  the  matter  stands,  the 
Canadian  boundary-line  is  the  world's  finest  example  of  common  sense  applied  to  exorcising 
the  nightmare  menace  of  war." — N.  Y.  World. 


Questions  and  Problems  Based  on  the  Text 

If  You  Can  Answer  Correctly  the  Following  Questions,  You  Have  the  Right  to 

Say,  "  I  Know  the  Main  Facts  and  Fundamental  Principles  Regarding 

the  Government  of  the  United  States  " 


CHAPTER  I— WE,  THE  PEOPLE 


Estimate  the  number  of  people  who  had 
a  part  in  providing  the  material  for,  and 
in  making  and  selling  the  pair  of  shoes 
that  you  are  wearing.     (Page  9) 

Why  is  confidence  in,  and  cooperation 
with  one  another  necessary  in  modern 
life?  Give  five  examples  of  your  depend- 
ence upon  the  honesty  and  good  inten- 
tions of  your  neighbors.  To  how  many 
people  do  you  trust  your  life  when  you 
ride  in  a  train?    (Page  13) 

Why  is  a  policeman  needed  to  keep  order 
among  people  who  mean  well?  Name 
other  duties  of  a  policeman.     (Page  15) 


4.  Name  five  ways  in  which  the  govern- 
ment— local,  state  or  Natiorial — helps  you 
to  save  your  time.     (Page  17) 

5.  Can  you  repeat  the  preamble  to  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States?  This  pre- 
amble is  thought  to  contain  one  of  the 
best  statements  of  the  purposes  of  gov- 
ernment to  be  found  in  any  document. 
What  are  these  purposes?     (Page  20) 

6.  What  does  the  word  "American "  mean 
to  you?  Why  is  the  character  of  the  peo- 
ple of  a  nation  even  more  important  than 
its  rich  natural  resources?     (Page  22) 


CHAPTER  II— THE  MECHANICS  OF  GOVERNMENT 


1.  What  are  the  three  most  important  tests 
of  a  democracy?  Apply  those  tests  to 
the  United  States.     (Page  26) 

2.  To  how  many  different  kinds  of  govern- 
ment are  you  responsible?  Name  two 
officials  of  each  kind.   (Pages  27,  28,  29) 

3.  Why  should  not  the  government  of  a 
state  instead  of  the  National  Government 
handle  questions  which  come  up  in  con- 
nection with  other  countries?     (Page  30) 

4.  Why  is  the  government  our  agent?  Into 
what  three  main  divisions  do  we  group 


the  people  who  represent  us  in  the  Gov- 
ernment? In  what  division  is  the  Gov- 
ernor of  your  state?  The  Chief  Justice 
of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court? 
The  Mayor  of  your  city?  Your  state  Sen- 
ator? Your  city  Councilman  or  Alderman? 
The  President  of  the  United  States? 
(Pages  31,  32,  33) 

Is  it  our  duty  to  assist  the  Government 
to  enforce  the  Prohibition  Amendment  to 
the  Constitution  even  though  we  may  dis- 
like this  particular  law?  Give  full  rea- 
sons for  your  answer.     (Page  33) 


CHAPTER  III— LAW  AND  GOVERNMENT 


2. 


Why  are  rules  and  umpires  necessary  in  a 
baseball  game?  In  what  respect  can  you 
compare  the  laws  of  the  Nation  with  the 
rules  of  a  baseball  game?  Is  it  right  for 
an  individual  player  in  a  baseball  game  to 
break  a  rule  of  the  game  if  he  thinks  the 
rule  imfair?    Why?    (Page  35) 


What  advantage  is  it  to  an  immigrant  to 
this  country  to  adopt  and  respect  the  cus- 
toms of  the  United  States?      (Page  36) 


3.  Why  do  people  in  the  United  States  think 
so  much  of  the  Constitution?  Why  would 
it  be  wrong  and  harmful  to  change  this 
Constitution  without  a  great  deal  of 
thought  on  the  part  of  the  people? 
(Pages  39,  40) 

4.  What  is  a  law?  Explain  the  difference 
between  a  constitutional  law  and  a  statu- 
tory law.  What  is  an  ordinance?  What 
is  the  difference  between  the  Prohibition 
Amendment  and  a  law  against  spitting  on 
the  sidewalk?     (Pages  40,  41,  42) 


216 


QUESTIONS  AND   PROBLEMS   BASED   ON  THE  TEXT 


217 


5.  Name  five  new  laws  which  you  would 
like  to  see  passed,  including  an  Amend- 
ment to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  Name  three  existing  National 
laws,  three  State  laws  and  three  local 
ordinances.      (Page  43) 

6.  Where  do  new  laws  come  from?  (Page 
43) 


If  a  person  is  arrested  and  accused  of 
committing  a  crime,  what  constitutional 
rights  may  he  demand?     (Page  44) 


If  a  driver  runs  an  automobile  without 
a  license,  and,  exceeding  the  speed  limit, 
injures  someone,  what  two  kinds  of  law 
is  he  subject  to?     (Page  45) 


CHAPTER  IV— THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


1.  Why  is  it  so  difficult  to  get  a  new  nation 
started?  Illustrate  your  answer  from 
some  of  the  present  day  infant  states,  such 
as, — Hungary,  Poland,  or  any  other  you 
may  think  of,    (Page  47) 

2.  Trace  the  events  that  led  up  to  the  mak- 
ing of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  Why  has  this  period  been  called 
"  the  critical  period  of  American  His- 
tory "  ?    (Pages  48,  49,  50) 

3.  Who  was  our  first  President?  When  and 
where'was  he  inaugurated?     (Page  50) 

4.  To  how  many  people  did  the  Constitution 
apply  when  it  was  first  written?  What 
was  the  area  of  the  United  States  at  that 
time?     (Page  51) 

5.  How  many  states  ratified  the  Original 
Constitution?   Where?   When?    (Page  52) 

6.  What  can  Congress  do?  How  is  it  or- 
ganized?     (Page  53) 

7.  How  were  United  States  Senators  first 
chosen?  How  are  they  now  chosen? 
(Page  54) 

8.  Are  you  able  to  name  ten  powers  given 
by  the  Constitution  to  Congress?  Five 
powers  denied  to  Congress?  Two  powers 
denied  to  the  States?     (Pages  58,  59,  60) 


9.  Name  the  qualifications  of  a  President. 
How  long  does  the  President  hold  office? 
Can  he  be  re-elected?  Name  some  of  his 
powers,  duties.  Who  succeeds  the  Pres- 
ident in  case  of  death?    (Pages  61,  62,  63) 

10.  If  a  great  strike  should  occur  in  the  coal 
mines  of  this  country  and  the  public  face 
the  winter  with  no  coal,  what  could  the 
President  constitutionally  do?  What  do 
you  think  he  should  do? 

11.  Define  Treason.     (Page  65) 

12.  If  a  man  commits  a  crime  in  the  State  of 
Texas  and  flees  to  the  State  of  Arkansas, 
can  the  authorities  of  the  first  State  bring 
him  back  for  trial?    How?     (Page  65) 

13.  Why  does  not  the  oath  that  all  public 
officials  must  take  contain  a  religious 
test?     (Page  67) 

14  Why  are  the  first  ten  Amendments  to  the 
Constitution  called  "  The  American  Bill 
of  Rights  "  ?  Name  the  rights  that  relate 
to  the  arrest,  trial,  and  punishment  of 
criminals.     (Pages  68,  69) 

15.  Can  a  state  abridge  the  rights  of  any  citi- 
zen of  the  United  States?     (Page  72) 

16.  Should  amendments  to  the  Constitution 
be  made  easier?     Why? 


CHAPTER  V— AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP 


1.  Why  is  citizenship  "  the  highest  and 
greatest  gift  of  the  Nation?  "     (Page  77) 

2.  In  what  three  ways  may  an  alien  become 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States?  Give  the 
words  of  the  new  law  that  applies  to  the 
naturalization  of  women.  Should  an 
American  woman  who  marries  a  foreigner 
lose  her  American  citizenship?  (pages 
77,  78,  79) 


Japanese  and  Chinese  aliens  cannot  be- 
come citizens  of  the  United  States.  Do 
you  think  this  right?    (Page  79) 


Why  should  citizenship  be  denied  to 
those  who  cannot  read  and  write  the  Eng- 
lish language?    (Page  79) 


218 


WE     AND      OUR      GOVERNMENT 


Suppose  a  married  couple  from  Italy 
come  to  the  United  States.  The  hus- 
band refuses  to  take  out  citizenship 
papers.  Should  the  wife  be  allowed  to 
become  a  citizen  of  this  country  even 
though  her  husband  does  not  wish  to  be- 
come one?    (Page  78) 

What  are  the  four  necessary  steps  which 
must  be  taken  by  an  alien  to  become  an 
American  citizen?  Describe  each  step  in 
detail.     (Pages  79,  80,  81,  82,  83) 


7.    Give  the  Oath  of  Allegiance 
8 


(Page  83) 


How  may  a  soldier  or  sailor  become  a 
citizen?     (Pages  84,  85) 

9.  An  alien  lives  in  the  United  States  twenty 
years  without  becoming  a  citizen.  War 
breaks  out.  Would  the  United  States  be 
justified  in  telling  this  man  to  join  its 
army  and,  if  he  refuse,  to  leave  the  coun- 
try?    (Page  85) 

10.  Can     citizenship     ever    be    taken    away? 
Give  instances.     (Page  86) 


11.  Name  three  rights  of  a  naturalized  citi- 
zen, and  three  duties.  Are  his  rights  and 
duties  different  from  those  of  a  native 
born  citizen?    (Page  87) 

12.  Why  is  a  speech  advocating  the  use  of 
violence  an  abuse  of  the  right  of  free 
speech  in  a  democracy  like  the  United 
States?  What  should  be  done  to  a  person 
so  abusing  this  right?     (Page  88) 

13.  Can  a  naturalized  citizen  become  Presi- 
dent? Name  three  naturalized  citizens 
from  your  state  who  hold,  or  have  re- 
cently held,  public  office.     (Page  88) 

14.  Why  is  self-control  such  an  important 
quality  for  the  citizens  of  a  democracy 
to  possess?    (Page  89) 

15.  What  does  the  Flag  represent?  What  is 
the  meaning  of  the  expression  "  Courtesy 
to  the  Flag "  ?  Give  the  words  of  the 
Pledge  of  Allegiance.     (Page  89) 


CHAPTER  VI— PARTY  GOVERNMENT 


1,  Why  are  political  parties  necessary  in  a 
democracy?  "Self-government  means 
the  rule  of  the  majority."  Why  should 
this  be?     (Pages  91,  92) 


2.  Why  is  it  better  for  a  country  to  have 
its  political  parties  founded  on  big,  broad 
political  and  economic  issues  which  ap- 
peal to  all  classes  of  voters,  rather  than 
to  have  parties  founded  on  class  or  re- 
ligious issues?      (Pages  92,  93,  94). 


Why  should  the  United  States  insist  that 
there  be  only  one  vote — an  American 
vote?     (Page  94) 


4.  How  do  political  parties  resemble  an 
army?  How  do  they  differ  from  an  army? 
(Page  96) 

5.  Why  does  a  political  party  need  money? 
(Page  98) 

6.  Is  it  better  to  have  a  bad  law  adopted 
or  a  weak  man  elected  in  a  fair  and  hon- 
est election,  than  it  is  to  have  a  good  pol- 
icy adopted  or  a  good  man  elected  by  dis- 
honest methods?  Should  a  democracy 
ever  recognize  corrupt  or  violent  methods 
in  winning  an  election?  Does  the  end 
ever  justify  the  means  in  politics? 
(Page  100) 


CHAPTER  VII— OUR  VOTE  IN  GOVERNMENT 


How  do  you  take  a  legal  part  in  the  gov- 
ernment?    (Page  105) 


Why  is  the  history  of  the  world  in  the 
future  to  be  determined  by  the  votes  of 
every-day  men  and  women?     (Page  111) 


2.    Have   all    citizens   the   voting   privilege?        5.    Define    (1)    Polling    Place,    (2)    Election 


What  are  the  tests  you  must  meet  before 
voting  for  the  Governor  of  your  state? 
(Page  107) 

3.    Why    are    property    tests    generally    ex- 
cluded in  voting?     (Page  108) 


Officials,  (3)  "Challenged",  (4)  Ballot, 
(5)  Spoiled  Ballot,  (6)  Voting  Booth, 
(7)  The  Secret  Ballot,  (8)  Split  Ticket, 
(9)  Registration,  (10)  Suffrage,  (11) 
Electorate,  (12)  Party  Watchers.  (Pages 
109,  110,  111,  112,  113,  114) 


QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS    BASED    ON    THE    TEXT 


219 


6.    What  is  the  difference  between  a  Massa-        9.    Should   citizens   be   compelled   to   vote? 


chusetts  Ballot  and  a  Party  Column  Bal- 
lot? What  kind  is  used  in  your  state? 
(Pages  114,  115) 

Should  a  voter  join  a  political  party? 
Give  reasons.     (Page  115) 

What  is  the  difference  between  an  open 
and  closed  Primary?  Is  a  Primary  Elec- 
tion conducted  in  a  different  way  from  an 
ordinary  election?     (Page  116) 


Give  reasons.    (Page  117) 


10.  What  is  the  effect  in  a  democracy  of  un- 
educated and  unintelligent  voters?  (Page 
118) 


11.    What  is  the  supreme  task  of  the  Schools? 
Give  reasons.    (Page  119) 


CHAPTER  VIII— OUR  REPRESENTATIVES  IN  GOVERNMENT 


1.  What  are  some  of  the  difficulties  which 
keep  a  government  from  always  acting 
justly  and  wisely  toward  all  of  its  citi- 
zens?    (Pages  121,  122) 

2.  Why  is  real  progress  in  a  democracy 
made  slowly,  step  by  step?  Why  are  laws 
which  are  passed  as  a  result  of  hasty 
action  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good? 
(Page  122) 

3.  What  kind  of  government  has  the  United 
States?  Democratic?  Despotic?  Rep- 
resentative?    Give  reasons.     (Page  123) 

4.  If  you  were  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  your  state,  would  you  feel 
it  your  duty,  while  in  Congress,  to  place 
the  interests  of  your  own  particular 
state  first,  or  the  interests  of  the  Nation 
as  a  whole? 


5.  If  a  friend  of  yours  whom  you  knew  had 
little  ability  was  running  for  office,  and 
his  opponent  was  unknown  to  you,  per- 
sonally, but  of  known  ability,  for  whom 
would  you  vote?     Why?     (Page  125) 

6.  What  is  the  chief  responsibility  of  the 
voter?    (Page  125) 

7.  Is  it  reasonable  to  believe  that  a  group 
of  representatives  in  Congress  or  in  a 
state  legislature,  could  pass  better  laws 
than  would  be  passed  by  the  voters  them- 
selves? Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 
(Page  126) 

8.  What  is  (1)  a  Direct  Primary,  (2)  a 
Referendum,  (3)  the  Initiative,  (4)  the 
Recall?     (Pages  128,  129,  130,  131) 


CHAPTER  IX— TAXES  AND  GOVERNMENT 


1.    Name  twelve  officials  of  the  government 
who  do  things  for  you.    (Page  134) 


2.  Why  should  we  be  careful  in  our  criti- 
cism of  government  expenditures?  (Page 
134) 


3.  Name  three  ways  in  which  the  govern- 
ment restricts  you  in  your  daily  life. 
Name  five  ways  in  which  the  government 
protects  you.  Name  six  ways  in  which 
the  government  is  assisting  you  to  do 
better  work"  and  to  be  a  better  citizen. 
(Pages  134,  135,  136,  137,  138) 


4.  Name  three  things  that  the  National 
Government  taxes,  three  that  your  state 
government  taxes,  three  that  your  local 
government  taxes.  (Pages  139,  140,  141, 
142,  143) 

5.  What  difficulties  face  a  governor  or  a 
mayor  who  attempts  to  reduce  the  ex- 
penses of  a  state  or  city  government? 
(Page  147) 

6.  What  is  a  tax?  Does  every  wage-earner 
pay  a  tax?  Name  a  tax  which  you  pay. 
How  do  you  pay  it?  Should  everyone,  no 
matter  how  poor,  pay  a  tax?  What  taxes 
do  people  pay  without  knowing  it? 


220 


WE     AND     OUR     GOVERNMENT 


CHAPTER  X— THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 


1.  Why  do  the  American  people  to-day  look 
to  the  President  for  national  guidance  and 
leadership  rather  than  to  Congress?  Is 
this  a  good  tendency?    (Page  149) 

2.  The  President  has  a  position  to  fill  in  a 
certain  state.  The  Senators  of  that  state 
recommend  a  man  whom  the  President 
thinks  not  quite  fit  for  the  job.  He  knows, 
however,  that  if  he  does  not  appoint  the 
man,  the  Senators  will  not  support  him 
on  an  important  piece  of  legislation. 
Should  the  President  appoint  the  man? 
(Page  150) 

3.  How  is  the  President  elected?  What  are 
his  constitutional  powers?  Why  should 
the  President  be  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  Army  and  Navy?  (Pages  149,  150, 
151,  152,  153,  154) 

4.  Why  is  the  President's  Cabinet  called  his 
official  family?  Is  the  President  obliged 
to  follow  the  opinions  of  the  members 
of  his  Cabinet?  May  he  disregard  their 
opinions  entirely?     (Pages  155,  156) 

5.  What  are  the  ten  great  departments  of 
the  United  States  in  the  order  of  their 


formation?  What  are  their  chief  duties? 
Name  the  present  head  of  each  depart- 
ment.    (Pages  156,  157,  158) 

6.  Name  an  important  independent'  estab- 
lishment of  the  Government.  What  is  its 
work?     (Page  159) 

7.  Why  are  Committees  in  Congress  abso- 
lutely  necessary?     (Page    162) 

8.  Trace  the  course  of  a  bill  introduced  in 
Congress  until  it  finally  becomes  a  law  of 
the  United  States.  What  kind  of  bill 
must  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives?    (Page  166) 

9.  How  are  the  members  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  appointed?  What 
are  their  terms  of  office?  Why  is  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  so  impor- 
tant a  part  of  the  American  Government? 
(Pages  167,  168) 

10.  Outline  the  judicial  organization  of  the 
United  States.      (Page   168) 


CHAPTER  XI— STATE  GOVERNMENT 


1.  Add  five  more  ways  to  the  ones  already 
given  on  Page  171  in  which  your  state 
government  touches  your  daily  life. 

2.  Why  is  the  title  "The  United  States  of 
America "  an  exact  description  of  the 
American  form  of  Government?  What 
other  countries  have  adopted  this  federal 
form  of  government  since  the  United 
States  was  organized?  Could  all  the 
countries  of  South  America  be  united 
under  this  plan?     (Page  172) 

3.  In  what  ways  do  state  governments  cor- 
respond in  their  organization  to  the  Fed- 
eral Government?     (Page  172) 

4.  Why  should  every  citizen  carefully  watch 
the  work  of  his  representatives  in  the 
state  legislature?     (Pages  173,  174) 


7. 


What  may  a  Governor  do  in  case  of  riots 
or  uprisings  in  a  state?  What  are  some 
of  the  Governor's  other  powers?  (Pages 
174,  175,  176) 


A  man  has  worked  in  the  party  organi- 
zation of  his  state  for  ten  years.  His 
party  elects  a  Governor  and  a  majority  in 
the  State  Legislature.  A  $10,000  position 
in  the  state  service  is  open.  He  asks  the 
Governor  for  the  position.  Should  the 
Governor  appoint  him?     (Page  177) 


What  state  activities  have  been  organized 
to  protect  (1)  the  business  man,  (2)  the 
investor,  (3)  women  and  children,  and 
(4)  the  laboring  man?  (Pages  178,  179, 
180) 


CHAPTER  XII— LOCAL  GOVERNMENT 

2 


In  what  way  are  the  counties  and  town- 
ships of  a  state  in  a  different  relation  to 
their  state  government  than  the  state  is 
to  the  Federal  Government  of  the  United 
States?     (Pages  185,   186) 


Why  do  the  Southern  States  have  a  dif- 
ferent form  of  local  government  from  the 
New  England  States?  Would  it  be  pos- 
sible to  have  all  fornisfof  local  govern- 
ment the  same?     (Pages  186,  187,  188) 


QUESTIONS    AND    PROBLEMS    BASED    ON    THE    TEXT 


221 


3.  Would  the  holding  of  old  fashioned  town  5.  If  a  murder  should  occur  in  the  immedi- 
meetings  by  the  citizens  of  New  York,  ate  vicinity  in  which  you  live,  what 
Chicago  or  Philadelphia  be  a  practical  county  officials  would  be  brought  into  the 
method,  to-day,  of  conducting  the  affairs  case?      (Page    189) 

of  these  cities?     (Page  187) 

6.    What  county  officials  did  you  vote  for  i 

4.  Why  is  local  government  important?  your  last  county  election?    (Page  i^^"* 


in 


189) 


CHAPTER  XIII— THE  AMERICAN  CITY 


Can  you  name  ten  other  ways  than  those 
given  on  Pages  193  and  194  in  which 
your  city  serves  you? 

Young  men  and  women  from  the  country 
are  coming  to  the  cities.  Is  this  a  good 
thing?  If  not,  what  would  you  do  to  stop 
the  movement?     (Page  195) 

Name  five  reasons  for  the  great  growth 
of  American  Cities.  Why  is  this  growth 
likely  to  change  American  political 
thought?  Will  the  change,  in  your  opin- 
ion, be  good  or  bad?  Why  is  a  large 
farm  population  a  good  thing  for  a  nation 
to  have?     (Page  196) 


What  is  a  city? 
(Page  197) 


What  can  a   city  do? 


What  are  the  three  general  types  of 
American  city  government?  What  type 
is  used  by  your  city?  Do  you  think  a 
change  to  one  of  the  other  two  types 
would  be  a  wise  move  on  the  part  of  your 
city?     (Pages  201,  202,  203,  204) 


Examine  the  last  edition  of  your  local 
paper  and  note  the  items  relating  to  the 
work  of  your  city  government. 


What  does  your  city  do  for  (1)  its  poor, 
(2)  its  children,  (3)  its  sick  (4)  its  busi- 
ness men,  (5)  its  working  people?  (Pages 
205,  206) 


Why  should  a  city  have  as  large  control 
as  possible  over  its  own  affairs?  Why 
is  it  very  unwise  for  a  state  to  give  any 
city  absolute  control  over  its  own  affairs? 
(Pages  198,  199) 


In  what  way  could  your  city  be  made  (1) 
more  beautiful,  (2)  more  convenient,  (3) 
more  safe?  Has  your  city  a  plan  for  its 
future  growth?  If  not,  what  can  you  do 
to  help  in  getting  one? 


CHAPTER  XIV— AMERICA— A  WORLD  NATION 


Should  the  Hawaiian  Islands  be  made  a 
State  of  the  United  States?  How  may 
these  Islands  become  a  state? 


2.  The  Filipinos  are  asking  for  Indepen- 
dence? Do  you  think  the  United  States 
should  grant  them  this  privilege?    Now? 


3.  How  are  the  following  governed?  (1) 
Hawaii,  (2)  Philippines,  (3)  Porto  Rico, 
(4)  Alaska,  (5)  District  of  Columbia,  and 
(6)  Panama  Canal  Zone? 

4.  Write  your  own  comment  (about  250 
words)  on  the  idea  expressed  in  the 
cartoon  on  page  215. 


INDEX 


Accused,  rights  of,  44. 

Agriculture,  Departmentof,  141,157,161 

Allegiance,  Oath  of,  83;  pledge  of, 
89. 

Alaska,    212,    214. 

Aldermen,    106. 

Aliens,  77;  naturalization  of,  77; 
children  of,  86;  naturalized  aliens 
who  have  held  public  office,  88. 

Ambassadors,   150. 

Amending  the  Constitution,  40,  66, 
172. 

Amendments    to     Constitution,     68. 

American   Documents,   20,   38,   39,   40. 

American  Revolution,  conditions  af- 
ter,   47. 

Army,  U.  S.,  23;  Congress  has  power 
to  support,  59;  obligations  to,  140; 
President,  Commander-in-Chief  of, 
63,   151;   Department  of  War,   157. 

Arnold,    Benedict,    65. 

Articles    of    Confederation,    48. 

Assembly,    32,     173. 

Assembly  districts,   173. 

Attorney-general,    174,    177. 


Bail,   69. 

Ballots;  secret,  112;  Kinds  of,  113; 
Massachusetts,  114;  split,  114,  il- 
lustration of,  115;  Party  Column, 
115;   Spoiled,   116,   117. 

Banks,   supervision,    180,  181. 

Bill   of  attainder,   60. 

Bill   of   Rights,   21,   38,   40. 

Bills  in  Congress,  57;  How  bills 
become    laws,    57,    162,    164,    166. 

Boss,   political,    102. 

Budgets,   city,   206;  Federal,    147. 

Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing,  29. 

Bureau   of    Naturalization,  81,    82,   84. 


Cabinet,    President's,    155. 

Candidates,    selection    of,    128. 

Capitol,    national,    42. 

Capitols.    State,    42,    174. 

Caste,   system,   35. 

Caucus,    political,   97. 

Census,    158. 

Certificate   of  Arrival,    77,   80. 

Certificate   of    Naturalization,    83,    84. 

Charter,  town,  191  ;   city,   198. 

Circuit  Court  of  Appeals,  168. 

Circuit   Courts,   181. 

Children's   Bureau,    158. 

China,    Constitution  of,  21. 

Citizenship,  greatest  gift,  77;  classes 
in,  84;  difficulties  in  acquiring,  85; 
rights  and  privileges  of,  87;  obli- 
gations, 89.      See  Naturalization. 

Citizens,  well  meaning,  15;  thought- 
less, 16;  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties of,  65,  89;  obligations  of,  89; 
Qualities  of  good,  89;  naturalized 
citizens  who  have  held  or  hold 
public  office,  88;  right  to  vote, 
105;    Education   of,    119. 

City,  activities  of  the  government  of, 
193,  194,  205,  206;  growth  of,  195; 
reasons  for  growth  of,  196,  197 ; 
improvement  in  government  of, 
197;  what  is  a,  197;  authority  of 
a,  198,  199;  State  supervision  nec- 
essary, 199 ;  government  of,  200 ; 
Mayor-Council  type  of  govern- 
ment, 201;  Commission  form,  202; 
city-manager  form,  204;  public 
works  of  a,  206;  finances  of  a,  206; 
citizen's  responsibility  to  a,  206; 
Planning  a,   207. 

City    Manager,   204. 

City    Planning,    207. 

Civil    Law,   45. 

Civil  Service   Commission,   159,   164. 

Civil   War,    cause   of,   93. 

Coast    Guard,    U.    S.,    156. 

Colonial   Policy,   U.   S.,  213. 

Commander  in  chief,   63. 

Commerce,    dept.    of,    162. 

Commerce,  power  of  Congress  to  reg- 
ulate, 58;   Department  of,  140,   162. 

Commission  form  of  City  Govern- 
ment,   202. 

Commissions,   U.    S.,    158. 

Committees,    party,   98. 

Comptroller,   174.    177. 

Committees   in   Congress,   162. 


Conference  on  the  Limitation  of 
Armaments,  30. 

Confidence,    need    of,    13. 

Congress,  powers  of,  53,  56;  ad- 
journment of,  56;  pay,  privileges 
and  prohibition  of  members  of, 
57;  resolutions  in,  58;  powers 
granted  to,  58 ;  powers  denied  to, 
59;  message  to,  63;  public  opinion 
reflected  by  acts  of,  131 ;  two 
houses  of,  160;  passing  of  bills  in, 
164,   166. 

Congressional  Record,  56. 

Conservation,  National,  157;  State, 
179. 

Constitutional    Convention,    49,    50. 

Constitutional    law.    27,    38,    41. 

Constitution  of   States,    173. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
Preamble  to,  20 ;  tests  for  demo- 
cracy, 27,  39;  Amending.  40; 
signers  of.  52;  text  of.  53,  54,  55, 
56,  57,  58,  59,  60,  61,  62,  63,  64, 
65,  66,  67,  68,  69,  70,  71,  72,  73, 
74,  75;  supremacy  of,  67;  ratifica- 
tion of,  67;  power  to  raise  taxes 
given   by,    144. 

Consuls,   U.    S..   30.   86. 

Continental  Congress,  48. 

Convention,    national,    98. 

Cooperation,  need  of,   13. 

Copyrights,    136. 

Cornwallis,   48. 

Court    House,    190. 

Courtroom,    182.  206. 

County,  government  of,  187,  189;  im- 
portance of,   189;   courts  of,   189. 

Courts,  29;  city,  183;  county,  181; 
criminal,  45;  District,  181;  Fed- 
eral, 33,  166;  juvenile,  183;  state, 
180;   surrogate,  45;  territorial,   169. 

Courts,    need   of,    17,    33,   45. 

Court   of   Claims,    169. 

Court  of  Common   Pleas,   181. 

Court  of  Customs  Appeal,   169. 

Criminal  Law,  45. 

Czecho-Slovakia,   Constitution  of,  21. 


Declaration  of  Independence,  fac- 
simile of.  6;  words  of,  7;  signing 
of,    20,    39. 

Declaration  of  Intention.  80.  See 
Naturalization. 

Declaration  of  Rights  and  Griev- 
ances,  39. 

Delegates,  difference  between  repre- 
sentatives and,   125. 

Democracy,  American,  21 ;  enlight- 
ened, 23;  tests  of,  26,  27;  defini- 
tion of,  27;  pure,  28;  representa- 
tive. 28. 

Democratic  Documents,  20,  38,  39, 
40. 

Departments  of — Commerce,  140. 
158;  Agriculture.  141.  157;  State. 
30,  64,  151,  155.  156;  Treasury,  30. 
60.  156;  Justice,  86,  153,  157;  War 
and  Navy,  157;  Interior,  157;  Post 
Office,   157;   Labor,   158. 

District  of   Columbia,   212. 

District    Courts,    169. 

Districts,    local,    191. 

Divorce,   28,    171. 


Education,  Democracy  depends  on. 
18,  141;  Citizenship,  119;  vital 
need   of,    129;   public,    137,    194. 

Elections,  56;  national,  101;  Presi- 
dential,  154. 

Electoral   College.   62,    154. 

Electorate,    105,    129.      See    Vote. 

Emblems,    Party,    95,    128. 

Eminent   Domain,    199. 

Employment    Service.    U.    S..    158. 

Evening  Schools.    119. 

Executive  Division  of  government, 
31,    32,   61,    169. 


Far  West,   local   government  in,    188. 

Federal  Courts,  33,  64,  166;  how 
judges  are  appointed  to,  166;  Su- 
preme Court,  167;  Circuit  Court 
of  Appeals,  168;  District  Courts, 
169;    Special   Courts,    169. 


Federal  Government,  27 ;  protection 
guaranteed  to  states  by,  66;  activi- 
ties of,  140;  Executive  Depart- 
ments of,  140;  States  necessary  to, 
172. 

Federalists,   93. 

Federal    Reserve    Board,    136,    159. 

Flag,  U.  S.,  courtesy  to,  86,  87; 
Pledge   of  Allegiance   to,  89. 

Floor  Leader,   162. 

Food  and  Drug  Act,   18,   158. 

Forest    Conservation,    179. 

Forms  of  Government,  monarchy, 
25;    oligarchy,    25;    democracy,    25. 

Franklin,    Benjamin,   49. 

Freedom,  of  Speech,  of  Press,  from 
search  and  seizure.  68. 

Fundamental  Law,   27,   38,  41. 

Federal  Trade  Commission,  150. 158.169 

Federation.  29. 

"  Filibuster."    164. 

Filipinos,    211. 

"  First    Papers,"   80. 

"  Free    Silver."    93. 

Fugitives,  65. 

Galveston,  202. 

Gold  standard.   94. 

Government,  basis  of,  14;  organiza- 
tion of,  14;  purpose  and  need  of, 
14;  food  inspection  by,  18;  — our 
agent,  18;  servants  of.  19;  organ- 
ized groups  of,  27;  State,  27,  171; 
local,  27,  185;  national,  27,  149; 
three  divisions  of,  31,  33;  rules  of, 
56;  a  two-party,  95;  progress  in, 
121;  representative.  123;  reforms 
of,  127;  tasks  of,  135;  problems  of, 
147;  territorial,  213. 

Government  Printing  Office,  159,  164. 

Governor,  State,  174,  175;  Legisla- 
ture, power  of,  175;  appointing 
power.    176. 

Graduated   or    Progressive    Tax.    143. 

Grand  Jury.   44. 

Guam.  212. 


Habeas    Corpus    Act.    38.    60. 

Hamilton,    Alexander,    49. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  209. 

Health    Department,    138,    141,    194. 

Home    Rule,     186,     198,    213. 

House  of  Representatives,  53,  160, 
161  ;  qualifications  of  representa- 
tives, S3;  direct  taxes  and,  54; 
President  elected  by,  70,  155; 
Speaker  of,  54,  161;  committee 
system   of,    162. 


Illinois,  subdivisions  of,  185,  186; 
State   Legislature   of,    186. 

Illiteracy,    141. 

Immigration  to  U.  S.,  77;  Depart- 
ment of  Labor's  work  on,  158. 

Impeachment,    64,    153. 

Income  tax.  Amendment,  73 ;  money 
received    from,    142. 

Independence    Hall,    39,   48. 

Independent  Boards  and  Commis- 
sions,  158. 

Indians,   care  of,   157. 

Inheritance  tax,   143. 

Initiative  and  Referendum,  advan- 
tages,  disadvantages  of,   130. 

Interior,  Department  of,   157. 

Internal   Revenue  taxes,   142. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 
ISO,    158.    169. 

Irrigation,   157. 


Judges,  appointment  of,150;Federal,106 

Judicial  divisions  of  government,  31. 
See    Judiciary,   Courts. 

Judicial    System   of    U.    S.,    168. 

Judiciary,    33. 

Judicial    Powers   of   U.    S.,    70. 

Jury,    Trial    by,    64,    69. 

Justice,  fugitives  from,  65;  Depart- 
ment of,    157. 


Labor   Dept.  of,   158,   163. 
Laws,     need    of,     17,    35;     beginning 
of,   35;   custom  and,   36;   definition 


222 


INDEX 


223 


of  law,  37;  public  opinion  and, 
37;  source  of,  43;  kinds  of  law, 
43;  difficulty  of  making,  44; 
power  of  Congress  to  make,  S3, 
59.  See  Constitutional  Laws, 
Fundamental  Laws,  Statutory 
Laws,  National  Laws,  State 
Laws,    Civil    Law,    Criminal    Law. 

Legislative  division  of  govern- 
ment,   31,    33,    S3,    169. 

Legislation,   121 ;   initiative,   128. 

Legislatures,  State,  31,  32,  40,  173, 
186;    Power  of,   173. 

Library  of  Congress,  48,   137,   159. 

Licenses,    143,     178. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  12,  71,  93,  102; 
Gettysburg,    address   of,    152. 

Local  Government,  work  of,  27, 
28;  taxes  raised  by,  143;  forms 
of,  185;  sub-divisions  of,  18S,  ac- 
tivities of,  185,  189;  State  su- 
pervision of,  186;  varieties  of, 
186;  origin  of,  186;  New 
England  form  of,  187;  offi- 
cials in,  187;  South  and  West 
forms  of,  188;  Louisiana  forms 
of,    188;   Far  West   form   of,    191. 

Louisiana,  forms  of  local  govern- 
ment  in,    188;    parish   in,    188. 

Loans,   Liberty,    139;    Victory,   140. 


Madison,    James,    49. 
Magistrate,     33. 
Magna     Carta,     21,     38. 
Majority,    31. 
Manager,    City,   204. 
Mayflower    Compact,    20. 
Mayor,    32,    33,    105. 
Mayor-Council     type     of     City     Gov- 
ernment, 201. 
Message   to    Congress,    63. 
Militia,    power    of    Congress    to    call 

forth,     59 ;     right     to     bear     arms, 

68;    State,    176,    179. 
Mints,    U.    S.,    29. 
Money,      13,     29;      Continental,      47; 

power   of    Congress   to   borrow,    58; 

to   coin,    58;    counterfeiting   of,    58; 

how     drawn     from     Treasury,     60, 

157. 
Monroe    Doctrine,    209. 
Municipal    Government.      See    Local 

Government. 
Museums,    137. 


National    defense,    135. 

National    Committees,  98. 

National  Government.  See  Federal 
Government. 

Naturalization,  power  of  Congress 
to  establish  uniform  rules  of,  58; 
how  to  acquire,  77,  78,  79;  four 
steps  in,  79;  Bureau  of,  81,  82, 
84,  158;  certificate  of,  83;  fraud 
and  penalties  in,  84;  Soldiers 
and    Sailors,    84. 

Navy,  U.  S.,  23;  Congress  has 
power  to  maintain,  59;  obliga- 
tions to,  140;  President,  com- 
mander-in-chief of,  63,  151;  De- 
partment  of    the,    157. 

New  England  Town  Meetings,  123,  187 

New    York,    138. 

Nobility,    no    title    of,    60. 

Oath,  President's,  63;  official,  67; 
allegiance,  83;  Boys  of  old 
Athens,    207. 

Ordinances,    28,    42. 

Original  Thirteen  States,  47;  rati- 
fication of  Constitution  by,  52; 
representative  government  began 
in,     123. 

Organization,  Club,  39 ;  Govern- 
ment,  40. 

Panama    Canal,    157. 

Panama    Canal   Zone,   212. 

Parks,    public,    178. 

Parties.        See    Political    Parties. 

Party,  state  ticket,  128;   membership, 

115,    platform,    99. 
Passport,    155. 
Patents,    136. 

Penitentiaries,    136,    157,    177. 
Pensions,    157. 
Petition   for   Naturalization,   77. 


Philippine  Islands,  vaccination  in, 
17;    Government   of,    210. 

Police,   duties  of,   15;  need   of,    17. 

Political  Parties,  91 ;  democracy 
and,  91;  organization  of,  92, 
96;  issues  of,  93;  citizens  of  all 
creeds  and  races  in,  94 ;  built 
like  an  army,  96;  machinery  of, 
97;  Candidates  of,  97;  Conven- 
tions of,  97 ;  Committees  of,  98, 
99;  corrupt  methods  of,  100;  Ed- 
ucational work  of,  103;  how  to 
become  a  member  of  a  political 
party,     115. 

Polling   place,    109. 

Porto    Rico,    211. 

Post  Office,  30;  power  of  Congress 
to    establish,    58;    work   of,    136. 

President  of  U.  S.,  term  of  office, 
61;  How  chosen,  61,  70;  Quali- 
fications of,  62 ;  in  case  of  death 
of,  62 ;  Compensation  of,  62 ; 
oath  of  office,  of,  63 ;  Powers  of,  63, 
149;  duties  of,  63;  impeachment 
of,  64;  how  nominated,  elected, 
99;  head  of  whole  nation,  101; 
who  votes  for,  105;  increase  of 
executive  power  of,  149;  strength 
of,  149;  appointments  of,  150; 
commander-in-chief  of  army  and 
navy  is,  151 ;  legislative  power 
of,  152;  power  of  pardon  of,  153; 
party  leadership  of,  153;  Election 
of,  154;  Cabinet  of,  155,  156;  veto 
power    of,    166. 

Presidents  of  United  States,  151, 
153. 

Primaries,  97;  Direct,  128;  Open  and 
Closed,   116;  advantages  of,  129. 

Prohibition,  amendment,  74;  taxes 
cut    off   because    of,    142. 

Property,  28;  qualifications  for  vot- 
ing,   108. 

Public  Debt,  73;  Victory  and  Lib- 
erty   Loans,    140,    156. 

Public  Health-Service,  doctors  of, 
18;  State,  178;  Department  of, 
206. 

Public    Lands,    157. 

Public    Libraries,    137,    194. 

Public  Safety  Departments  of  a 
City,    205. 

Public  Schools,  18,  141,  119,  129, 
137,    194,    206,   215. 

Public     Servants,     19,     177. 

Public    Works,    206. 

Qualifications  of  voters — property, 
age,    sex,    108,    109. 

Races,    characteristics    of,    22. 

Recall,  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages  of,    131. 

Referendum,   106,    128,   130. 

Reform   Government,   127. 

Registration,   111. 

Representatives,  test  of  democracy, 
26;  necessity  for,  124;  value  of, 
126. 

Republics,   25. 

Resources,  30,   133. 

Revenue  Bills,   57. 

Rights  of  Citizens,  69,  72,  73,  87; 
Constitutional,     88. 

Rogues  Gallery,   177. 

Rules,   need   of,    15. 

Samoa,   212. 

Schools,    Public,    119,   194,   205. 

"  Second  Papers,"  81. 

Secretary   of   State,    151,    174,    177. 

Senate,  U.  S.,  54,  160;  power  to 
try  impeachment,  55;  President 
of,    55,     163. 

Senators,  how  and  by  whom  chosen, 
54;  how  classified,  54;  Qualifica- 
tions   of,    55;    how    elected,    74. 

Senatorial  districts,    173. 

Slavery    abolished,    71. 

Smithsonian     Institution,     160. 

Soldiers  and  Sailors,  Naturalization 
of,    84. 

Speaker  of  House,  54,  161. 

State,  amendments  to  constitution 
of,     130. 

State   Constitutions,    173. 

Statp,     Department    of,    30,     64.     151. 

State,  Government,  work  of,  28, 
171,     172;    powers    denied    to,    60; 


rights  of,  70;  tastes  raised  by, 
143 ;  Federal  Government  corre- 
sponds to,  172;  Constitution  of, 
173;  Legislature  of,  173;  Senate, 
173;  House  of  Representatives, 
173;  Senatorial  districts  of,  173; 
Assembly  districts  of,  173;  Capi- 
tols of,  174;  Governor  of,  174; 
other  officials  of,  174;  militia  of, 
176;  Lieutenant  Governor  of,  176; 
boards  and  commissions  of,  177; 
Public  servants  of,  177;  activities 
of,  178;  Education,  178;  Public 
works,  179;  agriculture,  179; 
Conservation,  179;  Labor  pro- 
tected by,  179;  Business  safe- 
guarded   by,    180;    Courts,    180. 

States,  admission  of,  66;  Division 
of,  172;  Constitution  amended  by 
vote    of,    172. 

State  rights,  70. 

Statutory    Law,    41. 

Suffrage,  Women's,  Amendment, 
75,    109;    widening    of,    110. 

Supreme  Court,  U.  S.,  33,  Chief 
Justice  of,  55,  167;  Jurisdiction 
of,  167. 


Tariff,  93;  raising  money  by  a,  124, 
142,    169;    commission,    150,    159. 

Taxation,  dangers  in,  144;  limits 
to,  144;  problems  in,  147;  ex- 
travagance   in,    147. 

Taxes,  power  of  Congress  to,  58; 
how  apportioned,  60;  who  should 
pay,  133;  what  we  get  in  return 
for  our,  133;  criticism  of,  134 
war  and,  139;  what  the  Govern 
ment,  142;  Internal  revenue,  142, 
tariff,  142;  State,  143;  what  are 
good,  144;  indirect,  145;  Justice 
of    raising,    145;    State,    180. 

Territories,  U.  S..  209;  Govern- 
ment of,  209;  U.  S.  policy  to 
213. 

Township,  Government,  190;  offi- 
cials  of,    190. 

Treason,    65. 

Treasury     Department,     13,     60,     156. 

Treaties,    30,    64,    151,    156. 

Trial  by  Jury,  40,  64,   69. 

Unipires,    need    of,     15. 

United  States  of  America,  two  es- 
sentials of,  23;  how  organized, 
25;  growth,  51;  territory  and 
property  of,   66. 

United    States    Shipping    Board,    159. 


Vice  President,  55;  term  of  office, 
61,   62;    how  elected,   70,   99,    154. 

Village,  Government,  191 ;  activi- 
ties  of,    191. 

Virginia,  government  first  estab- 
lished   in,    123. 

Virgin    Islands,    212. 

Vote,  105;  influence  of,  105;  offi- 
cials elected  by,  105,  106;  priv- 
ilege to,  107;  safeguarding  of, 
107;  qualifications  to,  103,  109; 
registration  of.  111;  intelligent, 
117;  compulsory,  117;  education 
necessary  to,  118;  greatest  gift, 
the,     119. 

Voting,  test  of  a  democracy,  26; 
regulations.  111,  113;  secret,  112; 
machines,    112,    113. 


War  and   Navy   Department,    157. 

War,  Power  of  Congress  to  declare, 
59;    Saving   Stamps.    139. 

Warrants   to   arrest,    44,    69. 

Washington,  George,  49,  SO,  102,  150; 
monument,    150. 

Water    Power,    development    of,    179. 

Wealth,   national,  23. 

We,    the    People,    20,    21. 

Welfare,  206. 

Women,    Citizenship    of,    78. 

Women's    Bureau,    158. 

Women's     Suffrage.        See    Suffrage. 

Workmen's  Compensation  Com- 
missions, 179;   law,  180. 

World  War,  America's  contribu- 
tion, 23;  taxes  due  to,  139;  Cost 
of,   142. 


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"WE    AND    OUR    WORK" 

By  JOSEPH  FRENCH  JOHNSON 

President  Alexander  Hamilton  Institute;  Dean  and  Professor 

of  Political  Economy,  New  York  University 

"  We  and  Our  Work  "  has  been  written  to  meet  the  demand  for  a  new  work 
on  Economics  that  is  in  harmony  with  advanced  educational  theory  and  practice. 
The  present  day  emphasis  on  the  Social  Studies  in  the  Secondary  Schools,  together 
with  the  rapid  development  of  the  Commercial,  Vocational  and  Junior  High 
Schools,  have  brought  about  an  insistent  demand  from  teachers  for  a  book  on  the 
subject  of  Economics  that  is  not  merely  an  adaptation  of  an  existing  text  for 
advanced  readers.  "  We  and  Our  Work"  meets  this  demand  and  is  a  new  approach 
to  the  study  of  Economics.  It  will  incorporate,  as  will  all  the  books  of  the  Series, 
the  same  editorial  and  pictorial  features  of  "  We  and  Our  Government." 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  Chapter 

1.     The   Purpose   of   Work  10.     Rent 

The    Industrial    Revolution  11. 

American    Industry  12. 

American    Agriculture  13. 

Transportation  14. 

Classes  of   Workers — Manual,    Mental  15. 
How     Wealth     is     Produced — Land,     Labor, 

Capital,    Enterprise  16. 
Money,    Prices    and    Banks 

Large    Scale    Production    (Trusts,    Monopo-  17. 

lies,   Public   Utilities,  etc.) 


and    Interest 

Profits   and   Wages 

Labor   Organization 

Good  Times  and  Hard  Times 

On    Spending    (Consumption) 

Conservation:  National  Thrift,  versus  Na- 
tional  Waste 

To  Brighten  the  Outlook  (Reform  Move- 
ments) 

Cooperation    and    Prosperity 


"WE    AND    OUR    HISTORY" 

By  ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART 
Professor  of  Government  in  Harvard  University 

The  title  describes  the  purpose  of  the  book.  It  is  a  clear  account  both  of 
the  development  of  the  people  who  inhabit  the  country  called  the  United  States, 
and  of  their  society  and  government.  It  tells  how  they  passed  from  the  colonial 
to  the  national  condition,  and  from  a  small  nation  became  a  great  nation.  It 
follows  the  American  people  in  their  party  and  political  history,  their  government, 
their  occupations,  their  labor  system,  their  education,  their  business  combinations 
and  their  foreign  relations.  The  details  of  elections  and  of  military  campaigns 
are  very  briefly  stated.  The  viewpoint  of  the  work  is  that  the  history  of  America 
is  the  history  not  of  occurrences  but  of  human  beings.  Each  chapter  ends  with 
a  brief  account  of  the  great  man  who  best  illustrates  that  epoch. 

OUTLINE 


PART    ONE.      FOUNDATIONS    OF    THE 
REPUBLIC 
Chapter 

1.  The    Land   We   Live   In 

2.  First    American    People    (1492-1775) 

3.  Conquest   of   the   Wilderness    (1492-1750) 

4.  From    Colonists   to    Nation    (1750-1789) 

PART   TWO.      THE    YOUNG    UNITED 
STATES 
Chapter 

5.  Getting   Under   Way   (1789-1815) 

6.  Popular    Government    (1815-1829) 

7.  National    Growth    (1829-1861) 

8.  Public    Questions    (1829-1861) 

9.  The    Civil   War    (1861-1865) 


PART    THREE.      WELDING    THE    NATION 
Chapter 

10.  Reunion    of   the    Nation    (1865-1877) 

11.  Politics  and  Public   Men   (1877-1897) 

12.  Immigrants    and    Emigrants    (1877-1897) 

13.  Developing   the    Nation    (1877-1897) 

PART   FOUR.     REACHING   OUT 
Chapter 

14.  Parties   and    Presidents    (1898-1923) 

15.  Eastward     and     Westward     (1898-1914) 

16.  Care   for  the   People   (1898-1923) 

17.  In   the    World    War    (1914-1919) 

18.  What  America  Has   Done  for  the  World 


For  additional  titles  of  books  of  the  series,  see  page  four. 

The  American  Viewpoint  Society 

a  department  of  Boni  CBi,  Liveright,  Inc.,  Publishers 
New  York  City 


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